Paul’s relationship with the members of the Church at Corinth was fragile at best. Even though he was the founder of Christianity in the area and had labored in the city for months, some members simply could not abide him. In his absence, one in particular had made some pretty hard jabs at his character and authority, and others responded in kind. Even so, the Apostle continued to love them as well as the other members of the Church and worked for their spiritual and temporal welfare. His love, unfortunately, did not lessen the underlying antagonism some felt toward him. As a result, it took little for antagonists (likely coming from an eastern branch of the Church) to once again incite these Corinthian Church members, and perhaps others, against the Apostle. Due to this, he had written a very harsh letter to the branch.1 The reason for this is explained in what we call 2 Corinthians. “For I wrote to you out of great tribulation and anguish of heart with many tears, not that you would be made sorrowful, but rather that you would recognize the greater love I have for you” (2:4, NR).
Fortunately, many stood with him, and it was to these that he directed the epistle under study. In it, he defended his way of life, doctrine, and authority against his attackers. He was clear in giving them a reason for his writing this epistle: it was to prepare them for his arrival that would soon take place. He assured them that his coming was “not that we would lord it over your faith, but rather we are workers with you for your joy, because you stand firm in the faith” (1:24, NR). Even so, he was coming to straighten out affairs.
His detractors seem to have questioned his authority to direct affairs in the branch and insisted that he was interfering where he should not. It is therefore not surprising that right from his salutation he stressed his God-given authority as an Apostle of Christ Jesus. But he did more. Using that authority, he wrote not just to the Corinthian Saints but also to all those “in the whole province of Achaia.” His initial act was to pronounce a heartfelt blessing upon the branches that they would enjoy God’s grace (1:1, NR). That blessing was important because it would be only through the impartation of divine grace that his readers would hear, accept, and act on his counsel. He also desperately yearned that they would feel godly peace, a spiritual condition the divisive congregation desperately needed. Thus, by means of the salutation, he asserted his right to lead the branches and direct affairs there.
Salutation (1:1–2)
As with many of his other epistles, Paul somewhat follows the conventions governing prescripts specifically designed to separate an epistle from an informal letter and mark it as an official communication sent to a specific body of people by one in authority. These prescripts contain the name of the person (in this case, persons) sending the letter, his position, the audience he addresses, and an appropriate greeting. Paul, however, as shown below, is also careful to nuance his greetings such that they fit his purpose and bolster his theology.2
1:1an Apostle . . . by the will of God: With his very first phrase, Paul reminds his readers of his rank, that of Apostle. This follows Paul’s pattern in each of his epistles where he also emphasizes that his apostolic calling is based on divine mandate, making him a special witness of Jesus Christ with the same authority and privileges as the original Twelve.3 The title ἀπόστολος (apostolos), “apostle,” was chosen by the Lord to designate those he selected as his leaders (Luke 6:13; John 15:16). The term denoted persons set apart with extraordinary power to carry out specific responsibilities.4 Indeed, the Greek word, literally meaning “sent out,” carried the force of a legitimate and authorized person who fully represented the one who commissioned him.5 The Twelve were the Lord’s chosen ministers specifically ordained to bear witness of him and to carry out his work (see Matt. 28:19–20; compare D&C 107:23–24). It is in the sense of Jesus being God’s fully authorized minister that, in Hebrews 3:1–2, the Lord is given this same designation.
The noun θέλημα (thelēma), “will,” denotes a person’s determination to make something happen either through his or her own actions or by delegating the responsibility to another. In the instance of Paul’s call to the Apostleship, the initiator was Deity.6 The participial phrase δία . . . θεοῦ (dia . . . theou), “by . . . God,” stresses the idea that the acting agent is God, and thus, his authority undergirds Paul’s call.7 Taken together, the whole phrase stresses the fact that the Apostle’s call and standing is divine. He is, therefore, on the Lord’s errand and working under his authority.
Jesus Christ / Christ Jesus: The KJV follows the Textus Receptus, which reads Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (Iēsou Christou), “Jesus Christ,” whereas the earliest manuscripts reverse the order, Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ (Christou Iēsou), “Christ Jesus.”8 In our Rendition, we have followed the earlier texts, but we have also based our choice on Paul’s frequent use of this phrase (for example, see 4:5; Acts 19:4; Rom. 3:24; 8:1, 2, 39; 15:5; 16:3; and 1 Cor. 1:30; 15:31).
Through his often-reversed order in referring to the Lord, Paul stresses the Lord’s office. The Greek χριστός (christos) is used as a translation for the Aramaic מָשִׁיחַ (māšîaḥ), denoting one who has been anointed under God’s authority.9 In the Old Testament, only priests and kings were anointed and thereby became “anointed ones.” Because, as many believed, the prophesied Deliverer would hold both offices through God’s power, it was an easy step to apply the term to him as the Messiah. The Lord’s disciples recognized him as that deliverer and stressed his station as the “Anointed One,” thus promoting the title with his person.
The non-Aramaic-speaking inhabitants of Syrian Antioch, not recognizing the title, assumed it was a name and began calling the Lord’s disciples by that term, and thus the (likely pejorative at the time) designation Χριστιανός (Christianos), “Christian,” was born (Acts 11:26).10 Paul, however, kept the focus on the title and tacitly on its significance and by that means emphasized his own legitimate position as the envoy of the “Anointed One.”
Timothy:The name is also transliterated as Timotheus in the KJV (for example, see 1:19; Acts 18:5; 19:22; 20:4; Rom. 16:21; 1 Cor. 4:17). The name means “honored of God.” He was a citizen of Lystra and the son of a Greek father and a Jewish mother, Eunice. She, along with her mother, Lois, and son, was converted to Christianity. Timothy gained a solid reputation not only in Lystra but also in Iconium. Paul was so impressed with the young man that he called him to be his missionary companion during a portion of both his second and third missionary journeys. His willingness to submit to the ordeal of circumcision in order to better fit the mission’s needs stands as an excellent indicator of the young man’s faith. His endorsement by Church leaders is also confirmed by their willingness to give him authority through the laying on of hands (1 Tim. 1:18; 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6). Paul’s referring to him as “my beloved son” (1 Cor. 4:17; compare Philip. 2:22) shows his enduring affection, and Timothy’s title as “brother” suggests he functioned in a quasi-official capacity (as in 8:22).11 On more than one occasion, he acted as the Apostle’s trusted emissary. He also joined Paul as cosender not only of this epistle but also the epistles to the Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Paul also wrote two instructive letters to him. According to tradition, he became the first bishop in Ephesus.12
the church of God: The phrase τοῦ θεοῦ (tou theou), “of God,” is a genitive of possession, and by using it, Paul stresses that the Church belongs neither to any individual (no matter how rich or well positioned) nor to some inner circle of elite (no matter how spiritual or holy), but to God alone. It is of note that Paul is well aware of the social stratification that existed in the branches where freedmen and slaves, rich and poor all met together. He in no way tries to change this social condition, but he does believe that such stratification should not stand in the way of spiritual equality and oneness.13
The word ἐκκλησία (ekklēsia), translated “church” in the KJV, did not have an exclusively religious connotation in Paul’s day. Rather, it denoted any assembly to which the townspeople were called together by a herald’s trumpet or cry.14 On this basis, it is easy to see why the Saints referred to their meetings as ekklēsia, for they were called of God to meet regularly and do his will. Identifying the ekklēsia with God did give the term a spiritual dignity and authority. Here the term applies not to a single congregation but the whole of those in the province.
with all the saints: The adjectival noun ἅγιος (hagios), “sacred, holy,” is often used in the New Testament to designate those who have been converted to the gospel, been baptized, and received the Holy Ghost. In such cases, it is translated as “Saint.” It is directly related to the noun ἁγιωσύνη (hagiōsynē), “holiness,” an attribute that is the very essence of God (Lev. 11:44–45).15 Indeed, the word, whether applied to mortals or gods, has no secular nuance. The LXX uses it as the translation of the Hebrew קָדוֹשׁ (qādôš), “holy,” which carries the idea of separation, specifically that which is outside the sphere of the mundane and profane and therefore bears the attribute of purity.16
When applied to mortals in the New Testament, it does not carry the popular meaning denoting a super spiritual or ultra-hallowed person, but rather one who, through covenantal commitment to the Lord, has been set apart for his purpose.17 Specifically, it connotes one who has responded to God’s call to service. “In all these cases holiness implies a relationship with God that is expressed primarily not thought the cult but through the fact that the believers are ‘led’ by the Holy Spirit (Rom. 1:4)” that “demands behavior that rightly responds to” that Spirit.18 The end result is being “sanctified”—that is, entering into a new state where one receives the qualities and characteristics of the divine.19
in all Achaia / in the whole province of Achaia:Achaia (also spelled Achaea) was a Roman senatorial province that included much of central and southern Greece. Its administrative seat was at Corinth.20 The phrase “province of” is not found in the Greek text but is strongly implied and therefore added in our Rendition.
1:2Grace be to you and peace / Grace to you and peace: Though part of Paul’s greeting, the phrase also serves as an apostolic prayer in behalf of these people. The phrase also shows how Paul strays from the usual construction for an epistle’s prescript to support his theological purposes. It was common for letters to include the salutation χαίρειν (chairein), “greetings.”21 The idea behind the word in such use expressed a desire for favor or good will to follow the recipient.22
Paul, however, uses instead the noun χάρις (charis), the word carrying a broad range of meanings, including “grace, favor, mercy, kindness, and good will.”23 It points to the idea of generously and graciously giving some beneficence to another. The bestowal, however, does imply some kind of obligation on the part of the receiver.24 Therefore, the word “grace,” as opposed to “mercy, kindness, or goodwill,” is the better translation here because the word does imply that the beneficiary of God’s grace is under obligation to carry out the divine will.25
But there is another dimension of grace that must not be overlooked. This is as a designation for divine transforming power. Indeed, all perfecting attributes are ultimately “‘bestowed upon all who are true followers of . . . Jesus Christ’ (Moro. 7:48) by grace through his atonement.”26 Through faithful obedience to the Lord, individuals can receive strength that assists them to do God’s work that they may not otherwise be able to do. In sum, this bestowal of grace—as an enabling power—assists faithful people in gaining eternal life and exaltation.27
Paul adds to his salutation the word εἰρήνη (eirēnē), “peace.” Though often interpreted in the modern sense of “tranquility, rest, and harmony,” which does conform largely to its meaning in Koine Greek, the noun, in a religious sense, refers to a state of harmony between a god and his followers. For the Christian community, it certainly connoted a warm and personal relationship between the Saint and the Father and the Son that ensured a bright future. Indeed, such peace was “nearly synonymous with messianic salvation.”28
from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ : Paul’s emphasis, however, is not so much on grace and peace themselves as on their source and results. It is God, through his loving kindness (expressed in his giving to his Saints such things as the gospel, the Spirit, its witness of the truth, and ultimately, his Son), from whom these gifts ultimately come. Paul tacitly noted the impetus of these gifts—namely, God’s love for each Saint borne out of his fatherhood.
But such grace and peace come not as gifts from God alone. Indeed, the Savior has also given much for the Saints, including his whole mortal life. And it is through communion with him that these gifts are obtained and maintained (John 16:33; Philip. 4:7; 1 Pet. 5:14). “The whole process of believers’ sanctification, preservation, and perfecting (1 Thes. 5:23; Heb. 13:20) serves to deepen their participation in the peace of God”29 and their appreciation of the divine grace that makes the whole process possible.
The title which Paul gives to the Son is of importance. The noun κύριος (kyrios), “lord, master,” refers to one who acts in a capacity of authority due to possession or oversight.30 In many uses, it carries the strong nuances of both “master”—that is, a person to whom service is due on any basis—and Deity. It is the latter that comes strongly into play in the writings of the New Testament. The title consistently refers to Jehovah in the LXX. Jesus did not hesitate to take upon himself this title (see, for example, Matt. 7:21–22; 9:38; 22:41–45; and Mark 5:19). With two exceptions (Acts 2:47; Rev. 7:14), there is no evidence in any of the works between Acts and Jude that the term was ever again used by believers for anyone other than Jesus.31 Its use by Paul continues to tie Christ to the Old Testament God and explains why Jesus, as well as the Father, can be the source of grace and peace—that is, because Christ is God in his own right.32
Analysis and Summary
Paul was careful and consistent in calling himself an Apostle commissioned by God. The term “apostle” (ἀπόστολος, apostolos) carried no religious nuance in secular Greek. It simply denoted anyone acting in the capacity of a messenger from a simple courier to a fully invested governmental envoy. Even so, the word always carried the idea of one being sent out to do something and often connoted the authority and accompanying power of the individual or body that did the sending. Its most frequent use in the first century AD referred to a delegate or envoy.33
It was the philosophical school of Cynics that gave the term a theological turn. They saw themselves as invested representatives of the divine sent forth to do the god’s bidding.34 Though the term “apostle” may never have become so technical that it denoted exclusive divine authorization, it was nonetheless often associated in such contexts.35 That is the case with its use in the New Testament, where it designates those whom Jesus singled out and empowered to carry out his mission (Matt. 10:1–2; Mark 6:30; Luke 6:13).36 Paul’s use of the title in reference to himself shows he fell into this category.
In his greetings he also adds Timothy as a co-sender of the epistle (1:1), and this likely indicates why there are a number of times Paul used the plural pronoun “we” in the text. There has been a good deal of speculation as to why Paul mentioned his companion. These include Paul’s effort to give the young man more honor and respect in the Christian community at Corinth or to follow the Old Testament mandate that confirmations must be made by two witnesses (Deut. 19:15).37 That Timothy was the co-sender of five other of Paul’s epistles suggests that Paul simply wanted to recognize him as his companion who stood with him in ministering to the Saints.
He refers to those whom he writes as belonging to “the assembly of God” (tē ekklisia tou theou). His words are evidence that he sees no difference between Gentile and Jewish congregants. He apparently sees the whole as the true successors of the people of God, whom Jehovah himself designated as Israel.38 This betrays Paul’s view that the Church is not a human creation. God is responsible for the gathering of his people, and whether in individual house churches or in smaller groups, the whole comprises “the assembly of God.”39
Paul addresses the letter not just to the Corinthian congregations but also to all those throughout central and southern Greece (1:1). He may have done so because he designed his epistle as a circular letter to be read in the branches throughout the whole area. It may also be that they saw themselves as associated with and under the direction of the Corinthian base, and he therefore wanted them to feel included.40 The epistle’s broad reach does suggest that he did see the problems he focuses on as not just affecting the central place but endemic to the region.41
Paul addresses his epistle to the “Saints” in the whole area. In the broader Greek culture, the adjective ἅγιος (hagios) referred to that which was devoted to the gods and, when applied to people, designated those who dedicated themselves to the service of the divine.42 They, therefore, belong to the ἐκκλησία (ekklesia), or “called out group,”43 because they are set apart for God’s work. This emphasizes the idea that “what Christians are as individuals and what they are as a group are interrelated. The character of the individual is dependent on and affected by the group, and vice versa.”44
Paul seems to have used the term in the sense of being devoted to the Savior and thereby at work in his service. At that time, the adjective did not carry the force of one who was especially pure or unusually holy, but was more closely associated to one being called to the service and showing fidelity toward the Lord. The term also suggests being elected by him to duties in the Church. Though it did not carry the full weight of ethical behavior gained over time, it did carry the idea of behavior that responded fully to the will of the Holy Spirit.45
Of the significance of this title, Elder Mark E. Petersen stated, “The members of the true church anciently did not call themselves Christians, for that was but a nickname applied to them in derision by those who hated Christ. The members of the Church called themselves saints, as may be seen from various New Testament references (see 1:1; Rom. 16:2), which are confirmed by Webster’s dictionary and by the Bible scholars. This, then, is one of the identification marks of the true Church. The members are called saints.”46
The word carries the idea of holiness—that is, of separation from the worldly through yielding to the influence of the Holy Ghost. Paul notes that his target audience has been “sanctified in Christ Jesus” (1 Cor. 1:2). The phrase carries the idea that the Savior used his power to separate them from the world and make them his people. The application of the word does not, however, describe what they presently were (indeed, the divisive attitude of some members in Corinth suggests they stood in need of more saintliness) but stood as a reminder of what they were chosen to become.47 Baptism, the first step in a long development leading to full saintliness, ideally began a transformation process by cleansing and, thus, sanctifying them, but only to a degree.48 The process goes well beyond being sin free. Through the power of the Redeemer, the person slowly and eventually changes such that he or she becomes a new creature, even a son or daughter of Christ. Along the path they eventually lose every desire for sin and become “submissive, meek, humble, patient, full of love, willing to submit to all things which the Lord seeth fit to inflict upon him, even as a child doth submit to his father” (Mosiah 3:19; see also 2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 6:15; Mosiah 5:2, 7; 27:25–27; Ether 3:14; and D&C 20:31).
The Apostle, as he does in many of his other epistles, includes in the prescript his heartfelt blessing of grace and peace (for example, see Rom. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; Gal. 1:3; Eph. 1:2; and Philip. 1:2).49 The two words are loaded with meaning (see Translation Notes for 1:2 above). Essentially, he blesses his readers that they might have divine empowerment and a feeling of unity with the Father and Son.
Excursus on Paul’s Relationship with the Twelve Apostles
Answering the question about Paul’s possible instatement as one with the original Twelve Apostles, through the use of ancient sources, is influenced by bias. On the one hand, the general Christian belief is that Jesus never intended the Apostolate to become either an office or the ruling council of the Church. This position is necessary because none have the apostolic office. Based on Acts 1, supporters of this view insist, the qualifications for apostolic membership were that the person had to have “accompanied” the disciples “during all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among [them], beginning from the baptism of John until the day when he was taken up from [them]” and to have been an eyewitness of the Resurrection (Acts 1:21–22, our translation). Thus, only persons living in the first generation could qualify as members of the Twelve.50 Paul, being converted after Jesus’ death, did not meet the criteria and therefore could never have been a part of this circle. Thus, anything that suggests otherwise these people discount.
On the other hand, two chief qualifications for membership in the august body were a personal witness to the Lord’s Resurrection and the reception of his authority with its attendant commission. The original Twelve were all called by him and charged under his direction. Suggesting that the office was not meant to exist for only a short time is that, after the Resurrection, Jesus again personally commissioned the Twelve and gave them their assignments (Matt. 28:16–20; Acts 1:4–9). Thus, they took his place as earthly leaders of his “kingdom” and pushed forward his work. It is clear from Acts that the Lord’s intent was not for the Twelve to minister for a brief span of time but for the whole period until his coming.51 Thus, the Lord cemented the calling’s place into his Church.52 This requirement demanded the filling of the vacancy left by Judas (Acts 1:21–26) and, by extension, others.
Further evidencing that the office was meant to stay is the “Teachings of the Twelve Apostles,” also known as the Didachē. This treatise was composed anonymously with at least portions of it written as early as the late first century AD. A section gives instructions on how the people should treat the Apostles.53 Given its title, the work suggests that, at that time, the office was still functioning and that Church members viewed the Twelve as authoritative leaders who could give direction to the various congregations.54
But did Paul have membership in this body? Luke uses the term “apostle” consistently in his gospel and Acts to designate members of the Twelve. Twice in Acts 14 he uses the term “apostle” in connection with Paul, suggesting that he viewed him as a member of the Twelve. The problem is that the earliest reference (Acts 14:4) is vague. It states that, during a confrontation in which Paul and Barnabas were involved, some of the people sided with the Jews, and others with the Apostles. The way the text reads leaves the door open to the idea that the Apostles referred to were the Twelve and that Paul and Barnabas sided with them. However, the sense of the text suggests that Luke had Paul and Barnabas in mind and viewed them as members of the body. Evidencing this is Acts 14:14, where Luke definitely identifies them as Apostles. Unfortunately, textual evidence does not solve the problem because ancient texts vary on the reading of this verse. Some leave out the word “apostle,” while others exclude Paul from the title.55 Such changes, however, could be due to a bias on the part of ancient copyists who had a desire to lessen the importance of the office. Given that, it is possible that Luke does view Paul as a member of the Twelve. Whatever the case, there is no doubt that Paul put his office on parity with the Twelve whom, he notes, were “apostles before me” (Gal. 1:17) and even admits, after mentioning the Twelve, that he was “least of the apostles” (1 Cor. 15:9). Though “least,” as he points out, he had received a divine witness of the Resurrection and, at some point, had been commissioned to the work under the Lord’s authority.56 This leaves open the door to his membership among the Twelve.
With the Restoration, the early Church leaders consistently viewed the New Testament apostolate as the major ruling council of Christ’s Church and the foundation upon which it stood. They never questioned that it was an official office within the Lord’s kingdom and acted as the quorum of leadership. They appealed to Ephesians 2:20 and 4:11–13 to support their view.57 The reason it ceased to function, they taught, was not because it became unnecessary but because the rapid onset of the apostasy precluded its membership being kept up.58 Because of its position as a ruling council, it had to be restored again as a body within the priesthood. The Quorum, with its keys, powers, and mission, was reintroduced on the earth in February 183559 and has functioned according to divine instruction and mandate since that time. When, due to death, a position opens, it is quickly filled.
Based on modern practices of the Quorum, it is easy to read the same as occurring in New Testament times, but that may not be the case. Exactly how this body operated after the death of the Lord is unknown, though there is no doubt that it functioned as the core of Church leadership and held undisputed authority among faithful Christians. If membership in the Quorum followed today’s procedures and replacements entered its ranks only when a vacancy due to death occurred, there is a problem with Paul entering its ranks. Only two of the body’s original members are known to have suffered death before Paul in AD 65. These were Judas, who committed suicide at the time of the crucifixion, and James, the son of Zebedee, who died a martyr about AD 44. Since Matthias replaced Judas, so far as the text allows, only the place held by James became open during Paul’s ministry. Textual evidence suggests that it was James, the Lord’s brother, who took John’s position among the Twelve (1 Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19). However, in addition to Paul and James, there are four others associated with the position. These are Barnabas, Andronicus, and Junias (Rom. 16:7).60 Paul’s writings themselves evidence that there were people who had a recognized claim to the title but who were not among the Twelve (in addition to Rom. 16:7, see 1 Cor. 15:5–7). All this suggests that Paul did not have to have membership in the Quorum in order to use the title.
On the other hand, using modern practice as a guide, if the Quorum of the First Presidency were formed, then an opening for at least three new Apostles in the Quorum of the Twelve would be possible. Unfortunately, the text gives no indication that such happened. Even so, by the Restoration definition of the word “apostle,” there can be no question that Paul held that office. He was in very deed an “especial witness[] of the name of Christ in all the world” (D&C 27:12) who differed “from other officers in the church in the duties of [his] calling” (D&C 107:23). Because of his unique experiences and the authority he exercised, his membership in the Quorum of the Twelve cannot be ruled out.61
Thanksgiving for Godly Comfort in Suffering (1:3–7)
Having delivered his salutation, Paul now develops his prologue and in doing so lays the foundation on which he will build the rest of his epistle. His subject is suffering for God’s sake, something his audience was very well acquainted with. Events over the past few years had caused a great deal of spiritual and emotional bruising and even opened wounds, some not yet healed. Such suffering can not only cause bitterness but also break down the relationship between the sufferer and the Father. Here the Apostle shows that suffering, properly seen, can be redemptive. He therefore refuses to give into bitterness and regret but “offers one of the most beautiful and beloved passages in the [New Testament], turning his suffering into a song of thanks to God and an appeal for continued partnership with the Corinthian church.”62
This pericope breaks down into two units. The first comprises 1:3–7 and is investigated here; the next will be investigated below. At this point in his epistle, the Apostle praises the sustaining power of God and strikes a theme of encouragement during times of affliction (1:3). He then explains God’s purpose in allowing for such suffering and persecution (1:4–6) and points out—and this is the main purpose of this pericope—how mutual suffering has forged a stronger bond between him and his fellow Saints at Corinth (1:7).
1:3Blessed be God / Blessed be the God: Paul begins the formal portion of his letter with a doxology—that is, a praise of God.63 The adjective εὐλογητός (eulogētos), “blessed,” is related to the verb εὐλογέω (eulogeō), “to speak well of someone,” and, when pertaining to God, carries the force of admiration evidenced in acclaim.64 This feeling is based on a deeply felt recognition that he is the source of life and all that is good.65
Father of our Lord Jesus Christ: The noun πατήρ (patēr), “father,” in this instance, stresses the literal relationship between God and Christ. It rests upon the recognition of God as the life-giving principle in the universe.66 By noting the fatherhood of God, Paul tacitly highlights the divine power and office that rests with his Son. Further highlighting that power is Paul’s use of the title “Lord” for Jesus. On this, see Translation Notes on 1:2 above.
the Father of mercies / the Father of mercy: The noun οἰκτιρμός (oiktirmos), “mercy,” denotes strong compassion and sympathy for the suffering of another.67 By making the Divine the figurative “Father” of this virtue, Paul reveals both its source and godlike nature. The noun amplifies the idea carried by the verb οἰκτίρω (oiktirō), “to have compassion, pity for the ills of another,” and therefore connotes God’s visceral reaction to such suffering.68 The strength of his reaction leads to his reaching out to lessen if not alleviate it. Here Paul uses the plural and in so doing suggests not only the depth but also the breadth of God’s heartfelt compassion, laying the foundation for discussing its result—namely, godly comfort.
God of all comfort:The noun παράκλησις (paraklēsis) denotes “the lifting of another’s spirit” and thereby carries the primary meaning of “comfort and consolation.”69 The intimate and warm English word “comfort” carries the idea of bringing relief from suffering or sorrow through the impartation of strength or hope.70 The biblical word retains the idea of relief but stresses hope as its foundation. Therefore, a fullness of comfort must come through God and be based on the Atonement of Jesus Christ and the hope of salvation he promises. That godly comfort, however, does not come as an end in itself (as acceptable as that might be). Rather, its major purpose is to encourage and assist the Saints to remain true to the faith no matter what condition they face.71 Comfort does not come from God as a promise to the righteous that he will ward off sorrow and pain. It comes as he assists them through it. Thus, comfort is God’s response to pain and suffering. Further, its major purpose is to encourage the beleaguered Saints to endure. Indeed, the idea of comfort is so tied to encouragement in the noun paraklēsis that the two cannot be fully separated.72
The word also carries a heavy eschatological overtone. As noted above, the basis of both God’s comfort and encouragement is ultimately tied to a witness of the Spirit to the truthfulness not only of the gospel message but also of the promise of salvation and eternal felicity. Though God gives compassionate comfort and strength in temporal situations, comfort’s solace comes from knowing that, no matter what the current circumstances are, eternal joy awaits the faithful.73
Paul’s use of the adjective πᾶς (pas), “all,”74 suggests the breadth of the Father’s compassion and his response thereto by giving all possible comfort and therewith every encouragement to those in need.75 This twofold nuance—comfort and encouragement—should color our understanding in all the places where Paul uses the word.76 Admittedly, there are phrases in this section where “encouragement” could be the better translation of paraklēsis, but we have chosen to use only “comfort” for two reasons: first, because Paul uses the same word throughout this section, and second, because the idea of comfort stands behind all other nuances.
1:4Who comforteth us in all our tribulation / who comforts us in all our affliction: With these words, Paul notes the breadth of God’s response to suffering. There is nothing he considers too small. The noun θλίψις (thlipsis) denotes a particularly distressing kind of trouble afflicting one either inwardly or outwardly.77 Behind the noun stands the idea of being squeezed, pressed down, and even crushed.78 Out of this grows three nuances: “oppression,” denoting being weighed down in body or mind, usually brought on by an external force’s misuse of power or authority;79 “tribulation,” denoting suffering from any source that tries one’s courage and patience to the core; and “affliction,” denoting suffering imposed by others such that it challenges one’s ability to endure. It is the latter that best fits the context here and is used in our Rendition. That Paul uses the possessive pronoun ἡμῶν (hēmōn) with thlipsis, “our affliction,” points to trials that he and Timothy are currently enduring and, by extension, also to the comfort they are currently receiving. The result is continual divine encouragement.
that we may be able to comfort them which are in any trouble / so that we can comfort those in any affliction of theirs: With the phrase εἰς τὸ δύνασθαι (eis to dynasthai), literally “with the view that we are able,” Paul explains, at least in part, why he and Timothy are being tried. It is enabling them to have the necessary compassion to give needed comfort to their readers.80 The phrase ἐν πάσῃ θλίψει (en pasē thlipsei), literally “in every affliction,” suggests that the distress that Timothy and Paul are enduring and have endured has enabled them to bring comfort no matter what the nature of their readers’ afflictions might be.
by the comfort wherewith we ourselves are comforted of God / with the same comfort by which we ourselves are comforted by God. Here Paul notes the quality of the comfort that he and Timothy are receiving. It is divine. And with it has come commensurate encouragement. Because they have received that quality of comfort and encouragement, they can give it. The present tense of the verb παρακαλέω (parakaleō), “to comfort,”81 is important here because it shows the hand of the Father currently lifting and comforting the two missionaries. The dynamic and current nature of divine comfort stands as these missionaries’ witness that God will also comfort and encourage their readers if they too will stand fast in the Lord.
1:5For as the sufferings of Christ abound in us / For just as Christ’s sufferings abound to our advantage: The conjunction ὅτι (hoti), “for,” is causal and is important here because it explains that experiencing Christlike suffering enables Paul and Timothy to give comfort to others.82
The noun πάθημα (pathēma) refers to what a person suffers or endures.83 When associated with Jesus, though the idea often points more specifically to his atoning suffering (Heb. 2:10; 1 Pet. 4:13; 5:1), it generally refers to the suffering he had to endure through faithlessness, disappointment, and betrayal during his ministry, a suffering Paul and others could not only identify with but actually experience.84
The verb περισσεύω (perisseuō) has the sense of being “more than enough” and, therefore, “to abound,” with the idea of overflowing.85 The concept the word carries is important to Paul, for it expresses the unbounded nature of Deity’s giving (see 3:9; 4:15; 8:2, 7; 9:8).
The preposition εἰς (eis) is here used to express advantage.86 Paul’s point is that Christ’s sufferings in Gethsemane and on the cross have resulted in great benefits to all those who believe in him.
so our consolation also aboundeth by Christ / so also does our comfort abound through Christ: Here Paul makes a point of comparison: to the same degree that the Savior’s Atonement overflows to the believer’s advantage, to that same degree, the Lord’s comfort overflows and, thereby, encourages the Christian. The preposition διά (dia) is important, acting as it does as a marker of instrumentality.87 All godly comfort comes through the Lord Jesus. He is the instrument God uses to bequeath his comfort to his children.
1:6And whether we be afflicted, it is for your consolation and salvation / And if we are afflicted, it is for your comfort and salvation: This verse is somewhat enigmatic and therefore hard to translate. We have constructed our Rendering based on what Paul said above.
The conditional particle εἴτε (eite), “if,” is not a marker for a hypothetical condition but emphasizes the reality of the assumption.88 Paul and Timothy really do feel the heavy weight of their responsibilities and, thus, know full well its cost. The Apostle seems to be giving a reason why he and Timothy are afflicted. It is so that they are in a position to give encouraging comfort.89 However, that relief does not come as an end in itself. Its objective is to bring the comforted one to salvation. The noun σωτηρία (sōtēria), “salvation,”90 could have a transcendent nuance, thus referring to exaltation in God’s kingdom, but given the context, it more likely refers to deliverance from the distress and worry the Saints are currently feeling through the promises contained in the gospel.91
or whether we be comforted, it is for your consolation and salvation / and if we are comforted, it is for your comfort: As in the phrase above, the conditional particle εἴτε (eite), “if,” does not indicate a hypothetical but an actual situation. Paul and Timothy truly experience godly comfort. Paul’s use of eite twice (if . . . if . . .) does not denote mutually exclusive situations (either suffering or encouragement) but rather two events that occur in succession (first suffering and then encouragement).92 With this phrase Paul explains why, at least in part, he and Timothy have received that comfort. It is so that they can impart comfort to their fellow Saints.
which is effectual in the enduring of the same sufferings which we also suffer / whichproduces patient endurance in the same sufferings that we ourselves endure: The present, middle participle ἐνεργουμένης (energoumenēs) of the verb ἐνεργέω (energeō) in this context means “to produce, effect.”93 The effect it produces is ὑπομονή (hypomonē), translated here as “patient endurance.” The word denotes the ability “to hold out or bear up in the face of difficulties”94 but carries the nuance of standing fast, or holding one’s ground, thus patiently but actively not yielding place to an adversary.95
1:7our hope of you is steadfast / our hope for you is firm: The noun ἔλπις (elpis), “hope,” denotes an anticipated positive outcome based on a confident expectation in realizing the object.96 The predicate adjective βέβαιος (bebaios), “firm, unwavering, persistent,”97 strengthens the confidence found in the “hope.”
knowing, that as ye are partakers of the sufferings, so shall ye be also of the consolation / knowing that just as you share in our sufferings, so also you share in our comfort: Here the circumstantial participle εἰδότες (eidotes), “knowing,” from the verb οἶδα (oida), “to know,”98 is causal and therefore carries the nuance of “since we know” or “because we know.”99 The phrase looks at what the Apostle and the Saint experience together—that is, both Christlike suffering and godly comfort.
Paul’s use of the noun κοινωνός (koinōnos), “companion, partner, sharer,” is important because it marks those who share together in a deeply religious experience that acts to bind them together.100 It is this mutual sharing that is the ground of Paul’s unflinching hope in the Saints. Behind his statement is his full confidence that the Father will come through for them.
Analysis and Summary
Paul’s major thrust in this section deals with divine comfort, but he sets it against “our afflictions,” and “our suffering” (1:4–7). He identifies his suffering with that of the Lord to emphasize the depth of the comfort he has received from the Divine source. It is of note that Paul does not say that faithfulness either prevents suffering or takes suffering away, but that because of it the Saint receives comfort and, through it, encouragement from the Father and the Son to stay faithful.
Paul begins this pericope with a beautiful, effusive blessing toward God that emphasizes particularly his position as Father (1:3). The Apostle focuses on the aspect of fatherhood that expresses itself in two ways: as the literal Father of the Savior and as the figurative Father of all mercies (οἰκτιρμός, oiktirmos), the word denoting a deep sense of compassion, even empathy, for the suffering of another.101 It is his fatherhood of the first that opens the door to his fatherhood of the second. Indeed, it is because of the saving work of Christ that God’s full mercies can flow to his children. On this stands his role as the “God of all comfort” (1:3), the Atonement opening the way for the Father to exercise his mercy by touching, consoling, and encouraging his tormented child.
By placing mercy and comfort in the genitive mood, Paul does not simply identify two of God’s attributes; he actually discloses God himself. Mercy and comfort not only belong to God, but they define him—that is, they reveal not only what he is but who he is. He feels for his children. In response he extends himself though his mercy in giving comfort in the here and now. What the Apostle is emphasizing is that God is nothing short of a merciful and comforting Father.102
However, the immediate agent through whom he administers these divine attributes is his Son (1:19). He can do this because the Son, too, possesses these qualities. That this is the case can be seen even in Old Testament times when Jesus, in his capacity as Jehovah, revealed himself to Moses, saying that he is “merciful and compassionate, slow to anger, abounding in loving kindness and truth” (Ex. 34:6, our translation).103 Thus, the Godhead shares in these attributes to the good of the faithful.
The Apostle nuances the word “mercies” so that it emphasizes the depth of God’s feelings. So deep are they that the suffering of his righteous children brings a strong visceral response.104 The Father’s answer is to reach out through his Son in merciful comfort. Behind the word “comfort” (παράκλησις, parakēsis) stands the idea of help that is felt as a lifting of the spirit and an endowment of strength. Strongly connected to the word is its result, encouragement though knowing one does not stand alone. Such comfort speaks to the soul. “It brings not only outward relief but the knowledge that there is One who loves and cares, a God who sees distress and answers lament. Those who are in the midst of distress need something more than the external assistance than a mere technician might deliver. They need the warmth of compassion and concern and they need it from the One who has power over all things, the ability to bring true help and deliverance.”105
God’s objective in giving such encouragement is to motivate the recipient to move forward in obedient faith. The basis of that encouragement is Spirit derived. It is the witness of the Holy Ghost to the soul concerning not only the truthfulness of the gospel message but also the promise of salvation and eternal felicity that awaits the faithful.106 The current feeling of strength and comfort that the Saints receive is also the assurance that faithfulness will be rewarded. The end result provides the energy to endure life’s trials.
At the time Paul wrote, the Corinthian Saints were experiencing such trials. Paul does not soft-pedal their feelings of distress. Indeed, his use of the noun “affliction” (θλίψις, thlipsis) emphasizes the great difficulty of their ordeal.107 But, being a realist, he does put their difficulties in perspective. He understands that such pressure comes from being in a hostile world. For that reason, suffering should be no surprise. Jesus himself had warned his disciples that in this world they would have tribulation, but he assured them that he had overcome the world (John 16:33). Whether or not Paul knew of this teaching, he and Barnabas were well aware that only though many afflictions could the Saints enter the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22). The Savior himself was not free of tribulation, and in such each Christian joined him (compare Philip. 3:10 and 1 Pet. 4:13). It was this solidarity with the Lord that not only explained why troubles came but also witnessed that they could be endured. By this means there was a bond formed between the Savior and the saved.108
The suffering Son is central to this section. It is from him that Paul’s suffering overflows because he has called Paul to a very painful ministry, but it is also through him that comfort overflows from God.109 Therefore, Paul could say that the Savior’s suffering abounds (περισσεύω, perisseuō) to their advantage (1:5) because it shows that, with divine help, deep suffering can be endured and eventually overcome. Thus, does their “comfort abound through Christ” (1:5, NR).
Paul gives a reason why he and Timothy have and are enduring Christlike suffering. It is to enable them to strengthen the Christians in theirs by showing that they need not yield to it.110 And how is that possible? It is due to divine comfort that “abound[s] through Christ” (1:5, NR). Thus, Paul declares, “if we are comforted, it is for your comfort,” for it “produces [your] patient endurance in the same suffering that we ourselves endure” (1:6–7, NR). Thus, the Apostle can declare the utter confidence he has in his hope for their success because he knows that “just as you share in our sufferings, so also you share in our comfort” (1:7, NR), and with the strength that comes from that comfort, they will endure all that their antagonists place upon them.111 The key word here is “fellow-sharers” (κοινωνοί, koinōnoι), which, for Paul, implies a joint participation in a uniquely deep spiritual experience. That shared experience, in this case, is the uplift and strength that come through mutually experiencing divine, encouraging comfort that sustains one in trials and afflictions.112
But what is the basis for Paul’s hope? It is ultimately his experience with God and what the Father has already done for the Church. Paul reminds the Saints that it is God who continually strengthens them in their relationship with Christ (1:21). Through such godly encouraging comfort, they have endured and can endure affliction and in doing so boldly manifest that they are authentic Christ-followers. Indeed, it is Christlike suffering for his cause and the comfort that comes as a result that serve as the validating marks of a true Christian.113
By beginning this pericope with a doxology (1:3), Paul “not only expresses his own heartfelt praise but also mentors the Corinthians in proper Christian response to suffering” by showing them his personal response to his own situation and having them “consider their own response to the circumstances in which they find themselves.” His purpose is “challenging them to bless God in the midst of suffering.”114
The Harrowing Experience in the Province of Asia (1:8–11)
What follows is an analysis of the second unit into which this pericope breaks down 1:8–2:16. Here the Apostle continues to build on his theme by illustrating his point that suffering, properly seen, can be redemptive. He uses his harrowing brush with death as a case in point. His purpose is to have his readers relate to and appreciate what he has all too recently gone through (1:8) and to show them how the experience altered his attitude and that of his companions. It forced them to change perspective from relying on themselves to trusting fully in God even should they have suffered death (1:9). His deliverance, however, as he explains, has resulted in the hope that such will continue (1:10), and he gives much credit for his future success to the prayers of these Saints (1:11).
It is noteworthy that both the salutation and the prologue begin and end with the Apostle’s celebration of the Father’s comforting power (1:3, 11) and trumpet his redemption of Paul and his company from affliction (1:4, 6, 9). Also, both halves close by focusing on the Apostle’s partnership with his target audience, the Corinthian Saints (1:7, 11).115
1:8 The KJV translates this verse quite literally. In our Rendition we have tried to better express the sense of the passage in contemporary English.
For we would not, brethren, have you ignorant of our trouble / For we do not want you to be unaware, brothers and sisters: The causal conjunction γάρ (gar), “for,” ties, if somewhat loosely, the following to what Paul has said before and thus explains why he praises God. The verb ἀγνοέω (agnοeō), “to be unaware, ignorant of,” carries the nuance of not recognizing or not paying attention to the significance of something.116 In this instance, it is likely the latter meaning that is at play. If that is the case, then the Apostle is asking them not just to recall but to take very seriously what he now reminds them of.117
The plural noun ἀδελφοί (adelphoi), literally “brethren,” is regularly translated as “brothers and sisters” in our Rendition because it was often used in ancient religious literature to include both men and women.118
our trouble which came to us in Asia / the affliction that we suffered in the province of Asia: As is always the case in the New Testament, “Asia” does not refer to the far eastern continent, but to the Roman province that was located in the western part of present-day Turkey; hence, for clarification, we refer to it as “the province of Asia.”
With the phrase τῆς θλίψεως ἡμῶν (tēs thlipseōs hēmōn), literally “the affliction of us,” the Apostle points to a specific harrowing event and broadly locates it. Unfortunately, he identifies neither exactly where it took place nor what it was. It is likely, however, that his readers were aware of his reference, and that is the reason he didn’t need to give any details.119
were pressed out of measure, above strength, insomuch that we despaired even of life / we were oppressed utterly beyond our strength so that we even despaired of life itself: With this phrase, Paul describes his feelings while experiencing the harrowing event. The key thought here is expressed by the phrase καθʼ ὑπερβολὴν (kath’ hyperbolē). It denotes such excessive force that it is irresistible, thus beyond one’s strength to resist.120 To even better communicate the dire feelings he had at the time, he chose the passive of the verb βαρέω (bareō), “to be oppressed, burdened, weighted down.”121 The imagery is like that of an overloaded ship foundering with no hope of salvation.122 To put the final touch on trying to communicate the depth of his feeling and reveal his mental state, he uses the verb ἐξαπορέομαι (exaporeomai), “to be in utmost despair,” a condition that results from a total lack of hope.123
1:9But we had the sentence of death in ourselves / Indeed, we felt that we had received a verdict of death: This phrase translated literally as “But in ourselves had received the sentence of death.” The noun ἀπόκριμα (apokrima) denotes an official report or decision,124 but in proconsular Asia Minor it did not refer to a death sentence per se, but rather to a negative verdict in answer to a petition.125 Thus, the phrase does not refer to an actual sentence of death but to the negative result of an appeal for protection or release from prison. The idea conveyed by the Greek word is that, while no actual sentence of death had been formally decreed against them, the situation was such that they felt as if one had been and therefore feared death’s inevitability. We wrote the Rendition to catch that nuance.126
that we should not trust in ourselves / so that we would not trust in ourselves: In this phrase Paul explains why he and his companions suffered so. It centers on the issue of what or who to trust. The verb πείθω (peithō) denotes a situation so strong that it convinces a person to put her or his full confidence in something or someone.127 In this case, the horrible experience forcefully redirected the missionaries’ trust away from themselves and toward a higher power.
but in God which raiseth the dead / but rather in God, who raises the dead: Here Paul states not only the object of their trust but also the reason. The conjunction ἀλλά (alla) can be translated as “indeed,” and in that case it would reinforce the extent of the despair Paul has described.128 It can also be translated as “yet” or “but rather”129 and thus provide a sharp contrast between the missionaries’ feeling of deep despair due to the imminent and hopeless promise of death and their feeling of purposefulness once God had provided perspective on the situation.130 Because it better fits the context, we have chosen the latter for our Rendition.
The phrase τῷ ἐγείροντι τοὺς νεκρούς (tō egeironti tous nekrous), “who raises the dead,” could be taken to refer to the Father’s ability to resuscitate those who have died, such as in the case of Jairus’ daughter (Matt. 9:23–26; Mark 5:35–43) or Lazarus (John 11:43–44). Such a view could have supported the missionaries during this ordeal. Through faith, they could easily believe that though their lives might be taken, God would resuscitate them so that they could continue their mission. However, since the Christian message, proclaimed by Paul and the other missionaries, centered on the Lord’s Resurrection (for example, see 5:1–10, 15, and 1 Cor. 15), it seems far more likely that the strength the missionaries received was due to their belief in the promise of being resurrected into a state of glory.
1:10Who delivered us from so great a death, and doth deliver / He who rescued us from so great a peril of death will continue to rescue us: The verb ῥύομαι (rhyomai) denotes being delivered or rescued from death. It does not here carry the nuance of being “preserved from death” in general, but of being rescued from a situation in which actual death is threatened.131 That Paul uses the demonstrative pronoun τηλικοῦτος (tēlikoutos), “so great,” or by extension, “so excessive,”132 with the noun θάνατος (thanatos), “death,”133 underscores just how great a peril the missionaries felt they were in.
in whom we trust that he will yet deliver us / We have set our hope on him that he will also rescue us again: On “hope,” see Translation Notes for 1:7. The reality and severity of the threat of death now becomes the basis that the Apostle uses to show why the missionaries hope that God can and will deliver them from any and all threats when he so chooses.
1:11 The Greek of this phrase is extremely complicated. It translates literally as “so that from many people the gift to us through many thanks might be given in our behalf.” In our Rendition we have made several changes to make the meaning clearer in contemporary English. These include changing the word order; using an active voice rather than the passive of the Greek verb εὐχαριστέω (eucharisteō), “to thank”;134 and translating the nominal phrase τὸ εἰς ἡμᾶς χάρισμα (to eis hēmas charisma), “the gift to us,” into the verbal relative clause “the gift that many people gave us.”
Ye also helping together by prayer for us / as you join in helping us by your prayers: Here Paul notes the conditional nature of future rescues. The verb συνυπουργέω (synypourgeō) denotes people cooperatively joining together with others to meet a specific goal or purpose.135 In this case it is the Corinthian Saints joining with God to help Paul and his companions overcome the trials of missionary work.136 With these words, the Apostle acknowledges his dependence on the Corinthian Saints and in that way attempts to bind them to him. He identifies how they can help—namely, through heartfelt prayers.
that for the gift bestowed upon us by the means of many persons thanks may be given by many on our behalf / so that many might give thanks on our behalf for the gift that many people gave us: Here he gives the reason why his readers should pray for the missionaries. The phrase πολλῶν προσώπων (pollōn prosōpōn), “many people,” translates literally as “many faces.” The noun πρόσωπον (prosōpon) can also refer to “appearance” and “countenance”137 and therefore connote the personality or emotional state of a person. Paul may have in mind many people raising their faces to God in sincere thanksgiving.138
His use of the plural adjective πολλῶν (pollōn), “many,”139 is vague both times he uses it. The “many” who give the gift of prayer appear to be different from the “many” who give thanks for the missionaries. It may be that those giving the gift are Paul’s supporters in Corinth who are willing to pray for him and his companions, and those giving thanks are those nonmembers who will be blessed as the missionaries bring the gospel into their lives.140
Analysis and Summary
To illustrate his point that suffering, properly seen, can be redemptive, Paul calls his readers’ attention to a most harrowing experience that he and his missionary companions had in the province of Asia. He also explains why he is so thankful to God for its outcome. His description of the depth of his and his companions’ fear betrays how terrifying the ordeal really was. Indeed, he states they were “oppressed utterly beyond [their] strength so that [they] even despaired of life itself” (1:8). His words suggest that they felt a sentence of death had been passed against them (1:9).
Just where they were when this happened is unclear from the text, and there has been much speculation about not only this but also the exact circumstances they were under.141 A place of possible intersection is the riot that took place in Ephesus against the Christians (Acts 19:21–41). The problem is, however, that the account in Acts, though showing how intense the near riot was, does not give the impression that Paul’s life, or anyone else’s, was in danger, and thus the door is left open to other possibilities. It may be that, for missionary purposes, Luke underplayed the event. It is likely that Paul was arrested, albeit briefly, after this event, but Acts is silent on this point. One thing is clear: due to the strength of the hostility generated against Paul, for his safety the local Church leaders had Paul leave the city. Further, wherever the place was, what is sure is that Paul and his companions despaired of life; that is, they viewed their situation as so desperate that they really thought they were going to die.
The result of their experience brought a new understanding of this kind of suffering. In this section, Paul revealed their new insight, one that focused on suffering with Christ. The incident is important to Paul because it was during that trying time that he and his companions were forced to turn away from their own means and rely totally on God (1:9). In fact, his own suffering for the gospel’s sake seems to have caused him to relate to the Lord’s own suffering for that cause. Paul saw the implications—if the Christians shared in Christ’s suffering, and particularly in his death, then they would also share “in his resurrection and his glory.” As a result, “not only [would] the Saints receive comfort from God, but they [would] also be victorious with Christ in the future (1:5–7, 9–10).”142
It is of note that their trust did not initially rest on being rescued from death. Rather, it rested on God’s power over death. Thus, these missionaries could have had in mind God’s power to resuscitate them so that they could carry on their mission or, more likely, to eventually resurrect them through the power of the Atonement into eternal life and glory. Apparently, in some miraculous way God did not allow them to suffer death but rescued them from that terrifying and hopeless situation (1:10). By doing so, God turned their condition inside out. Fear and perplexity gave way to a new understanding and perspective that Paul felt compelled to communicate to his readers.143 Paul and his companion came to understand that even when conditions seemed hopeless, God had the power to rescue his people.
In 1:11, Paul does three important things that further assist him in laying down the foundation on which he will build the rest of his epistle. First, he acknowledges the help his readers can give him and his companions as they lift their voices to God in fervent prayer. As they do so, he tacitly reminds them, they actually join with God in supporting the missionaries. Second, he enlists their help in the ministry as they join together in thankful prayers to God for what he has done for Paul and others and, by inference, can and will do for all. Such would have a sanctifying effect on them (as it had on the missionaries) as they relied on and glorified God rather than themselves. And finally, he reinforces their alignment with him in his role as an Apostle. Indeed, their response to his request publicly reveals and reinforces that they stand with him.144
Paul Explains the Reason for His Confidence in the Correctness of His Dealing with the Corinthian Saints (1:12–14)
With this pericope, Paul begins his letter in earnest. His harrowing experience in the province of Asia, culminating in his rescue by God, has illustrated his initial theme that the Father comforts the afflicted. The Apostle has shown that the source of his comfort has been through God’s intercession, which has now brought the Apostle’s heartfelt thanksgiving. Because of God’s intervention, Paul has declared his intent to bless the Father and rely upon him for further deliverance. He also has acknowledged the help his loyal supporters in Corinth have and continue to give him and his fellow missionaries by enjoining God through prayer in their behalf. In doing so, Paul has carefully laid the groundwork such that he can now turn to the delicate matter of answering his detractors’ continual and intense criticism of his person, doctrine, and authority.145
This section (1:12–14) contains the thesis of the whole work, as the Apostle to the Gentiles attests to the purity of his motives, the clearness of his writings to these people, and his pride in them.146 This section constitutes a rather lengthy apologia or “defense,” wherein Paul explains why he was unable to fulfill his plans to visit these Saints, but behind that is his attempt to disarm those who criticized him due to the harsh tone of his letter.147
1:12For our rejoicing is this / Now the reason for our pride is this: The conjunction γάρ (gar) usually carries causal force and is therefore often translated as “for” or “because.” Here, however, it functions to denote a new division or set of ideas and is, thus, translated as “now.”
The noun καύχησις (kauchēsis), “pride, praise, boasting,” refers to what constitutes the result of Paul’s sureness about his correctness of his dealings with the Corinthian Saints.148 The root of the word means “to boast,” but in the present context it should be understood to denote the “reason for boasting”—that is, what he can claim with proper and justifiable pride.149 The Greek noun carries the same tension as does the English word “pride.” It can connote that which is good (thus, self-respect and delight in others)150 or that which is bad (thus, self-conceit and competition with others).151 To guard against the latter, the Bible stresses that all praise should be directed toward God in recognition of his goodness (see, for example, Jer. 9:23–24 and 1 Cor. 1:31). Such insight excludes self-boasting (see the warnings in 1 Cor. 5:6 and James 4:16).
Paul stresses the theme of proper boasting in many of his letters. Looking at how the Apostle does it shows his insistence that it must be directed toward others and more especially toward the Father and the Son. He puts special emphasis on the cross—that is, the Atonement of the Savior (Gal. 6:14; see also 1 Cor. 1:29; 2 Cor. 10:17). By doing that, he eliminates all aspects of self-conceit and self-praise, the centers of “evil boasting.”152
the testimony of our conscience: This phrase reveals what Paul takes pride in. The noun συνείδησις (syneidēsis), “conscience,” denotes the capacity to know right from wrong.153 In its theological sense, the word nuances “the faculty by which we apprehend the will of God, as that which is designed to govern our lives,” and by yielding to this, we follow our consciences and avoid guilt.154
The noun μαρτύριον (martyrion), “testimony,” denotes that which acts as proof for a belief or position.155 Here Paul uses it to refer to his personal witness borne by a clear conscience as to the correctness of his dealings with the Corinthian Saints.
that in simplicity and godly sincerity / that with godly holiness and sincerity: Though the KJV follows the Western and Byzantine reading of ἁπλότητι (haplotēti), “simplicity,” the alternate reading, ἁγιότητι (hagiotēti), “holiness,” has both earlier and stronger support, and we, therefore, use it in our Rendition.156
The conjunction ὅτι (hoti), “that,” plays an important role here as it introduces the phrase that gives the content or substance behind Paul’s clear conscience. His guiltlessness is expressed by the main verb in the clause, ἀναστρέφω (anastrephō), “to act, behave, conduct” (see below), which points to a life governed by the two virtues mentioned next.157
The noun ἁγιότης (hagiotēs), “holiness,” denotes that which is free from worldliness. It nuances the primary characteristic or attribute of God. When used with people, it carries the idea of moral purity and having a godlike nature.158
The noun εἰλικρίνεια (eilikineia), “sincerity,” denotes “a state of being free from dissimulation” and thereby stresses the idea of “purity of motive.” It connotes the idea of integrity and honesty.159
To these Paul adds the phrase τοῦ θεοῦ (tou theou), “of God,” translated adverbially as “godly” in our Rendition. By using this phrase, he puts even more stress on the quality of his actions toward the Corinthian Saints that underscore his guiltless feelings.
not with fleshly wisdom / not with human wisdom: The adjective σαρκικός (sarkikos) refers to that which is human and therefore fleshly but on a level that is natural, weak, and disappointing.160 Behind it stands the connotation of something that cannot be trusted. The noun σοφία (sophia), “wisdom,” denotes “the capacity to understand and function accordingly.”161 Wisdom can be divided into two broad categories: one human and the other divine.
The σοφίᾳ σαρκικῇ (sophia sarkikē), “wisdom of the flesh,” denotes that which pertains to mortals. Though it does have many connotations that are not pejorative (intelligence, skill, common sense, applied knowledge), they are all linked to that which is uninspired and of human derivation—therefore, that which is earthly, vulnerable, transitory, and perishable. In our literature, the pejorative nuance dominates. Human wisdom stands behind their rejection of God’s ways.162
The σοφία θεοῦ (sophia theou), “wisdom of God,” stands in contrast to human wisdom. It is based on people’s acceptance of God and willingness to learn and implement what God decrees. Thus, godly wisdom is rooted in the fear (reverence) of the Divine (Job 28:28; Ps. 111:10; Prov. 1:7; 9:10; 15:33).163 As such, it is a gift from God.164 Paul builds on this theme.
but by the grace of God / but with the grace of God:Here Paul shows the source of his clear conscience when it comes to his dealings with the Corinthian Saints. It did not come via human wisdom but rather came ἐν χάριτι θεοῦ (enchariti theou), “by means of God’s grace.” The dative phrase shows instrumentality or means and thus points to God’s enabling power. The noun χάρις (charis) has a breadth of meanings,165 but here it denotes a heavenly enabling power given as a gift that assisted Paul and his companions in living as they did.166
we have had our conversation in the world and more abundantly to you-ward / we have conducted ourselves in the world and especially in regard to you: The verb ἀναστρέφω (anastrephō) denotes conduct that is based on high ethical or moral principles.167 The word is translated consistently as “conversation” in the KJV because that noun, in that era, denoted such conduct.168 Here it refers to a kind of grace-filled life made possible through the power of God (see above).
The noun κόσμος (kosmos), “world,”169 does not carry, in this instance, a pejorative nuance of evil or depravity170 but rather that of the geographical area in which Paul labors. His work, as he states, was that of reconciling the world to God (5:19).
The adverb περισσοτέρως (perissoterōs), “especially,” expresses a degree well beyond the standard.171 Paul uses it to stress the care with which he and his companions conducted themselves while at Corinth.
1:13For we write none other things unto you, than what ye read or acknowledge / For we do not write anything to you except what you can read and also understand: The conjunction γάρ (gar), “for,” unlike its use in 1:12, has explanatory force here.172 It signals that Paul will now explain the nature of his written communications to the Corinthian Saints. It is based on Paul’s intent. First, his writings are done with care so that they be easily read. The verb ἀναγινώσκω (anaginōskō), “to read,” includes not just personal reading but more especially reading something in public for the benefit of others, a trademark of the activity of the synagogue.173 It must be kept in mind that the vast majority of the people were illiterate and were therefore dependent on others to read to them in order to understand written communications.
Paul states his second intent. His writings are done with care so that his readers can understand. The ἐπιγινώσκω (epiginōskō), “understand,” means “to know” but carries the nuance of knowing something fully or exactly and, therefore, understanding it.174 Essentially Paul is saying that he is careful to write only what they can grasp. He thus qualifies what he writes with the phrase ἀλλʼ ἢ (all’ ē), “other than, except.” The phrase denotes that there is nothing in his writings except what is obvious. In short, his writings contain no hidden agenda, no coded messages. What the Saints read and understand is all there is. That he has to explain the nature of his writings suggests there were those who were reading between the lines and by that means twisting his words to say things he never meant.
and I trust ye shall acknowledge even to the end / And I hope you will completely understand: On the verb ἐλπίζω (elpizō), “to hope,” see Translation Notes on 1:7. The noun τέλος (telos), though it can denote the end of an era and nuance specifically the Parousia or Second Coming,175 in this case, carries the idea of a high degree of completeness.176 Thus, the phrase ἕως τέλους ἐπιγνώσεσθε (heōs telous epignōsesthe) means to “completely understand.” The key to what Paul hopes his readers will understand lies in his switching from the first-person-plural verb “we” to the first-person-singular “I.” His hope is that they will come to fully understand him and his motives. It was this desire empowered by that hope that drove him to write this epistle.
1:14As also ye have acknowledged us in part / as you have also partially understood us: These words reveal the root of the problem. The genitive phrase ἀπὸ μέρους (apo merous), “in part,”177 describes the incomplete nature of their understanding of Paul and his message. Though there are some things about him they seem to have readily grasped, there are others that have eluded them.
that we are your rejoicing / that we are your source of pride:In this phrase, the Apostle points out a very important matter in his relationship to them that they have missed. He uses the noun καύχημα (kauchēma), “the source of pride” or “cause of boasting.”178 The source of the Saints’ pride was having a knowledge of the gospel and the work of the Father and the Son. The source of that pride, which some of these people seem to have missed, was Paul and his companions who first introduced the gospel to the area.
even as ye also are ours in the day of the Lord Jesus / just as you will also be ours in the day of our Lord Jesus: This phrase reveals the positive result of their fully comprehending Paul. Just as it is with his present pride in them, so they will have the same toward him. That he appeals to τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ (tē hēmera tou kyrou hēmōn Iēsou), “the day of the Lord Jesus,” suggests that he has full confidence in the Savior’s future vindication of all he has done. This is because, in the day of the Lord, all things will be disclosed.179 At that point, the missionaries will be able to take pride in their Corinthian brothers and sisters because they have united with the missionaries and their message.
Analysis and Summary
Paul begins this pericope (1:12–2:13) by bearing a strong witness as to how guilt free his conscience is when it comes to his dealings with the Saints at Corinth. Indeed, he states that his clear conscience is a source of pride with him. It is grounded on his conduct (ἀναστρέφω, anastrephō)—that is, his actions following the highest order of ethical behavior.180 He testifies that these actions were grounded in that kind of holiness and sincerity that is enabled by God and is not based on fallible worldly wisdom.181
Indeed, his former (and by extension, present) conduct is filled with the grace of God that authenticates all he did and now does. Paul feels assured that he can stand on his integrity. Though acting according to conscience is his and his companions’ general comportment, they exercised it more especially during the times spent at Corinth. The Apostle’s not-so-hidden message is, then, that he and his companions stand blameless before God. On this condition—his total feelings of guiltlessness—Paul builds the rest of his defense that continues through chapter 7. In doing so, it is likely he is very deliberately laying the groundwork for his forceful defense against those who had impugned his character and apostolic office.182
Based on his integrity, Paul declares to his readers that he has been straightforward in all his correspondence with them. He has never, he assures them, used his writings to hide an agenda or veil a teaching. Because some have read his letters supposing that they contained some veiled material, they have understood neither his intentions, his doctrine, nor his use of authority. As a result, the congregation has had, at best, only a partial understanding of him. He therefore stresses the transparency of his epistles to assure them that they can take at face value what he has written and will write to them, and through that means they can come to understand him more fully.
Because of the propensity of some to misread his material, it appears that the congregation’s positive response to his harsh letter may have been more superficial than he desired. They still did not understand his humility and meekness and as a result were vulnerable to the blandishments of the opposition party. Misunderstanding him likely opened the doors for his detractors to misrepresent and thereby twist his intentions, thus gaining disciples to their cause and his hurt.183 Paul’s supporters apparently resisted the attacks. This varied condition would account for his mixed signals (of both joy and anxiety), with which the epistle is loaded concerning these people.184 His desire, as he states, is to have the Saints, through means of this letter, more accurately understand him, his motives, and his message. As this happens, hopefully by understanding the content of the present letter, they will come to feel a sense of pride in him just as he expects that he will take pride in them “in the day of the Lord.” (1:14).185 The reason for this mutual pride will likely be because they can stand up in the judgment “and testify on each other’s behalf to the Lord about how good each has been to and for the other.”186
Excursus on Pride and Boasting in the Writings of Paul
In this epistle, the theme of pride and boasting (which includes both their good and bad aspects) plays a major role. Because of that, we felt that an expanded exploration would help the reader more fully understand and appreciate the points Paul makes.187
The Greek words that Paul uses are the verb καυχάομαι (kauchaomai), meaning “to take pride in something” to the point of boasting about it;188 the noun καύχημα (kauchēma), referencing “the act of taking pride in something” and again boasting about it;189 and the noun καύχησις (kauchēsis), denoting “that which constitutes the source of pride” and therefore the reason for boasting.190 Boasting can also be understood as glorifying, praising, or exalting in something or someone. Note that the words themselves are neutral when it comes to having a moral quality. Only the context in which they are used can reveal whether the act is to be taken as a good or bad thing.
According to the writers of the Old Testament, as viewed through the lens of the LXX, wrongful pride centers in a person’s determination to make his or her own way fully independent of God. At its core, it expresses distrust in the Divine. Indeed, “the true sin of self-glorying is man’s failure to acknowledge God as the Author and Lord of all being and the Giver of all good things”191 (for example, see Lev. 26:15–19; Deut. 8:11–14; 1 Sam. 2:3; Neh. 9:12–16; Ps. 10:4; 40:4; 119:21; and Prov. 6:16–17; 16:18; 28:25).
True pride is Godward, and as such it carries the sense of rejoicing, glorying, or exalting in the Divine. The reason for giving glory and praise is often based in a personal recognition of what God has done for the individual. Such people recognize their dependence upon the Father as the God of creation and all that is good. All they have is the result of the trust placed in them by the Creator. Through their humble submission to the will of the Father, they attain God’s grace and a feeling that they properly glory in what the Father and Son have done for their ultimate salvation (1 Chr. 16:33; Ps. 31:23; 149:5; Zech. 10:12).
The rabbis took the idea of boasting a step further, insisting that the faithful should also rejoice in suffering since it often acts as Godly chastisement divinely designed to bring the sinner back to God. As such, affliction should be seen as an expression of God’s love (for example, see Prov. 3:11–12).
Paul builds on the Old Testament foundation. The Apostle sees false pride as the basic problem that hinders the Jews from accepting the Lord. Their self-defeating attitude is actually one of being overly self-confident in seeking glory before God through self-righteousness rather than from him through faith in Christ. Faith in the Lord guards against pride. It is of note that the first question Paul asks after his major treatise on faith (Rom. 3:21–26) is “Where then is boasting [καύχησις, kauchēsis]?” (Rom. 3:27). He rests his case on the scriptural point that with Abraham, who exercised complete faith in Jehovah and thereby became the beneficiary of his covenant, there was no pride (καύχημα, kauchēma) before God (Rom. 4:1–2).
Paul sees that a major problem with the Jews results from a perversion of the law. The scriptural requirement of boasting in God had been changed to “rest[ing] on the law” rather than on Christ (Rom. 2:17, 23). Indeed, the result of their pride is actually “confidence in the flesh” (meaning circumcision as representing taking upon oneself the weight of the Mosaic law; Philip. 3:3). Paul sides with the Old Testament understanding of the issue in that proper pride stands primarily in fully trusting in God. That means that pride in God (καυχώμενοι ἐν τῷ θεῷ, kauchōmenoi tō theō) forcefully disallows any exclusive kind of self-confidence. Further, true boasting in God must come through the Lord Jesus Christ (Rom. 5:11), who has brought to a full end all the greatness of both the Jews and Gentiles (1 Cor. 1:25–31 in light of Jer. 9:21–24; compare 2 Cor. 10:17). Proper understanding and worship of God eliminates all self-boasting (Philip. 3:3) so that Paul can say, “Be it far from me to take pride (καυχᾶσθαι, kauchasthai) except in the cross of our Lord Jesus, through which the world has been crucified unto me, and I to the world” (Gal. 6:14, our translation).
Faith in Christ actually opens the way to true boasting because self-glorification has been done away. It has been replaced with another kind of boasting centered in personal achievements made possible through the Lord, especially in the propagation of the faith (Gal. 6:13). A good example can be seen in Ammon’s boasting in God (Alma 26:1–10). His exaltation seemed so excessive that his brother, Aaron, rebuked him, but Ammon explained, “I do not boast in my own strength, nor in my own wisdom; but behold, my joy is full, yea, my heart is brim with joy, and I will rejoice in my God” (Alma 26:11). The faith-filled see their work as growing out of the grace of God that attended them in his service (1 Cor. 3:5–7; 15:10). Because their success is a divine gift, Paul can ask, “What do you have that you have not received?” The implied answer is “Nothing.” He goes on to ask, “if you have received it, why do you boast as if you had not received it?” (1 Cor. 4:7, NR). His implication is that accomplishments that were dependent on grace disannul any personal credit. Thus, as he says, “let no one boast in mankind” (1 Cor. 3:21, NR) because the divine endowment lifts the grace-filled above any dependence or obligation to humankind.192 Paul explains the reason why. It is because they “belong to Christ, and Christ belongs to God” (1 Cor. 3:23, NR). Thus, all judgment must be based not on “those who take pride in outward appearance” but rather “what is in the heart” (2 Cor. 5:12, NR).
Paul pushes hard not only on the Old Testament theme that persons can truly boast only when they look beyond themselves to God and the goodness that flows from him but also on the rabbinical view that the true believer also boasts in his afflictions and weaknesses (Rom. 5:3). In Second Corinthians the Apostle clearly illustrates this point and shows how the transcendent power of God sustains the believer in all of his or her trials (4:7–11; compare 11:23–29). On that basis, Paul can say, “If I must boast, I will boast about the things that show weakness” (11:30, our translation), for in his overcoming his weakness the enabling and sustaining power of God is clearly revealed.
His position maintains a very realistic view of earth life and especially the added challenges it heaps upon a believer. The commitment to follow Christ does not relieve the disciple of life’s challenges or vicissitudes. Indeed, it may exacerbate them. The Savior made this point clear when he said, “Blessed are you when men revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for so they persecuted the prophets who came before you” (Matt. 5:11–12, our translation). Jesus was clear that the gospel would not be a unifying force. He asked his disciples, “Do you think I have come to give peace on earth?” and then answered, “No, I tell you, but rather division; from henceforth in one house there will be five divided against two and two against three,” and as a result the family will be torn apart (Luke 12:49–53, our translation). Certainly, the Corinthian branch of the Church experienced division over what the gospel was and who had authority to interpret and administer it.
It must be noted that for Paul suffering never bears meaning in and of itself. In short, it is not an end in itself. His glorying in affliction is not self-grounded as it is in the case with ascetic achievement where humiliation of the flesh is the endgame. For the Apostle, it is rather a means of accessing divine power, often through the humility and dependency on God that suffering brings (12:9).193 Paul ever keeps the suffering of the Savior before his readers as marking the path that they themselves should expect to follow (4:10–12).
In this perspective, boasting looks away from oneself toward a future where one, through Christ, escapes the weaknesses, pains, sorrows, and persecutions of this world. Thus, boasting in trials is also boasting in the “hope of sharing in the glory of God” (Rom. 5:2, our translation). These words show that Paul sees suffering as something more than the Jewish belief that it is merely a means of godly correction and discipline. He understands that God’s power, granted by the grace of Christ, though only fully realized in the future, is presently at work in the life of the disciple. Therefore, he can say, “We do not lose heart, but even if our physical body is being destroyed, our soul is being renewed day by day. For our present, insignificant affliction is producing for us an eternal fullness of glory beyond all measure and proportion” (2 Cor. 4:16–17, NR).
The question naturally arises, What about Paul’s references to boasting in himself and in others? In reality, the way he boasts does not violate his theology because it is always directed toward something higher than the immediate source. For example, when the Apostle boasts of the strength of certain portions of the Corinthian congregation in relationship to others (7:4, 14; 8:24; 9:2–3), he is simply expressing his confidence in them. His glorying in them does not stand in contradiction to his glorying in Christ. This is because the pride he has in them is grounded in what the Savior has done through him for the branches and their response to that effort (Rom. 15:17–18; 1 Cor. 15:10). He is very aware that his efforts in no way earn God’s favor—because it is always there—but rather the success of his efforts contributes to his personal favor toward God. Thus, he is careful to emphasize that the pride he has in the Saints is through “Jesus Christ our Lord” (Rom. 5:21). In sum, his words reveal his keen awareness that the pride he has in his work is grounded in what Christ has done through him (Rom. 15:17–18; 1 Cor. 15:10). Thus, he states that he “will not boast beyond proper limits but will keep to the limits of the assigned area that God has given us, to reach even to you” (2 Cor. 10:13, NR).
Further, Paul’s self-confidence or sense of pride does not arise from comparing himself with others. In fact, he decries those who “commend [them]selves” and by that means come off very well (3:1; compare 10:7). His self-praise has no hint of arrogance or personal self-superiority over others. He feels no need to boast in himself, he insists, because his sole commendation is the work Christ does through him, which work becomes bona fide in the hearts of his converts (3:1–2; 4:2). By this means he sets up the sole basis by which true apostolic authority, with its accompanying work, may properly be judged. Indeed, when all is said and done, the full measure of authenticity is in the effective power that works through the apostle and blesses the disciple (6:7; 13:4). That in turn leads to the praise of the power of God (4:7).
The final chapters of 2 Corinthians contain the paradoxical situation, not only recognized but also set up by the Apostle, in which boasting in God’s grace and power is anchored in Paul’s self-boasting. The Apostle stresses that he has been forced into this position by those who have contested his authority. He justifies his action because his authority does not promote his own cause but that of the Lord from whom his authority comes. Therefore, he must boast of what he has done. He admits that there is some danger in doing so, but he maintains that he has been driven to it (10:8; 12:11). He, however, shows his recognition of its paradoxical nature by insisting that what he is doing is acting the part of a fool (11:16–19) and admits that “what I say, I say not according to the Lord, but as a fool, in undertaking this boasting” (11:17, NR).
He then lists his qualifications for service and by that means shows that his detractors cannot even begin to measure up (11:22–29). He then hints at a number of great spiritual events that demonstrate his favor with God (12:1–4). These deep and powerful experiences should set him well above all others, but he will not have it. Instead, he says, “If I must glory [and this not as a fool], I will glory in my weaknesses” (11:30, NR). By this means he shifts his praising from his deeds to that of the power and grace of God (12:8–10 in light of 4:7). He can therefore testify that “we do not proclaim ourselves, but Christ Jesus as Lord, and ourselves as your servants for Jesus’ sake” (4:5, NR).
Here then is the center of Paul’s boasting and epicenter of his pride, that he is privileged to continually experience the power and grace of God in his personal life and to be the servant of Christ in bearing the gospel to the world.
Why He Defends His Actions (1:15–20)
In this pericope, Paul appears to be addressing one of the attacks against his authority and personal commitment to the Corinthian Saints. The point of attack appears to have focused on Paul’s not visiting the congregations when he said he would. In the section above, he set up his explanation and defense by noting the purity of both his motives and actions toward the Corinthians in the past (1:12) and assuring them that when they fully understood him, he would be a source of pride with them (1:13–14). He now explains that his inability to come when promised was not an act of caprice on his part but necessitated by divine action (1:15–20).
1:15And in this confidence I was minded to come unto you before / And with this confidence, I intended to come to you first: The noun πεποίθησις (pepoithēsis), “confidence,” denotes such a strong state of certainty that it allows for full trust or assurance in the object. Here it refers to Paul’s sureness of his comportment among the Corinthians.194 The translation of the adverb πρότερον (proteron), “formerly, earlier, first,”195 presents a problem because it could modify the verb βούλομαι (boulomai), “wish, desire, intent,”196 or the aorist infinitive ἐλθεῖν (elthein), “to come.”197 Given the context, it seems best to see it as modifying the infinitive and thus meaning that Paul desired to visit them first and then move to other areas in Greece and Macedonia.198
that ye might have a second benefit / so that you would have a second proof of my goodwill: The conjunction ἵνα (hina), “so that,” introduces the reason why Paul intended to visit these people before moving on. His reason is revealed in his use of the noun χάρις (charis), usually translated as “grace, favor, or benefit,” but in this case, it looks more at “the practical application of goodwill.”199 Had he been able to follow his initial itinerary, Paul would have given the Corinthians double proof of his goodwill toward them by visiting them right after he left Ephesus and before moving on to see other branches of the Church in Greece and Macedonia and then returning to Corinth before sailing to Jerusalem.200
1:16And to pass by you into Macedonia, and to come again out of Macedonia unto you / I planned on visiting you on my way to Macedonia, and on my return from Macedonia to come to you: The senatorial province of Macedonia lay to the immediate north of Greece. Paul brought the gospel to three of its principal cities: Philippi, Thessalonica, and Berea (Acts 16:11–26; 17:1–13). Given Corinth’s location, it is easy to see why Paul made the plans as he did. As he traveled by ship from the province of Asia to Greece, Corinth would have been a natural disembarking point. Likewise, it would be a natural embarking point when leaving Greece for Jerusalem.
and of you to be brought on my way toward Judæa / and then be sent by you on my way to Judea: The verb προπέμπω (propempō), “to send,” can mean to accompany a person to his or her destination (as in Acts 20:38),201 but it is more likely that, in this case, it refers to assisting another with goods, supplies, and funds for a trip.202
1:17When I therefore was thus minded, did I use lightness? / Now because I intended to do this, was I being fickle?: Paul again uses the verb βούλομαι (boulomai), “wish, want or desire” (here in the participial form), to express his intention to come visit Corinth first.203 The noun ἐλαφρία (elaphria), “fickleness, lightmindedness, or frivolous,” denotes the condition of treating an important matter frivolously, revealing an irresponsible state of mind given to caprice.204 Paul’s use of the definite article with the phrase suggests that he had a specific charge against him in mind.205
In both Jewish and Greco-Roman cultures, to be accused of fickleness, lightmindedness, indecisiveness, and especially capriciousness carried heavy negative weight. This flaw could hardly be tolerated and was severely condemned when found in anyone who held a leadership position. Keeping one’s word was all important. The oversensitive nature of the Corinthians to the mores of the time exacerbated such a charge, and since keeping covenant was especially important to both Jews and Christians, to break one’s word only heightened the feelings of outrage. The result was often hot censure.206 Apparently, Paul’s antagonists insisted that his change of plans proved he had an unstable character and thus his words were not worth listening to.
or the things that I purpose, do I purpose according to the flesh / Or do I make my plans based on human standards?: Again Paul uses the verb βούλομαι (boulomai), “intend,” in the sense of making plans. The noun σάρξ (sarx), literally “flesh,” denotes, in this case, the outward expression of life and, therefore, the act of basing one’s actions according to human standards.207 It connotes “the psychological aspect of human nature which contrasts with the spiritual nature; in other words, that aspect of human nature which is characterized by or reflects typical human reasoning and desires in contrast with those aspects of human thought and behavior which relate to God and the spiritual life.”208
that with me there should be yea yea, and nay nay? / indecisively saying both “yes, yes!” and “no, no!”?: The particle ναί (nai), “yes,” denotes affirmation,209 while οὐ (ou), “no,” indicates negation.210 In the phrase ναὶ ναὶ καὶ τὸ ου οὔ (nai nai kai to ou ou), Paul is again emphasizing that he was not being fickle and unable to make up his mind, saying both “yes” and “no” at the same time (compare Matt. 5:37 and James 5:12).
1:18But as God is true, our word toward you was not yea and nay / On the contrary, as God is faithful, our word to you is not both “yes” and “no”: So important is Paul’s reputation to him that he here continues his defense with a mild oath.211 The particle δέ (de), “but,” is grammatically positioned in this phrase potentially as an adversative, carries a very contrastive force, and therefore means “on the contrary,”212 helping push Paul’s point. The oath centers on one aspect of God’s character: he is πιστός (pistos), “trustworthy, dependable, faithful.”213 By appealing to this godly trait, the Apostle substantiates his own witness as to his personal trustworthiness. His words reveal his full assurance that God would stand behind his claim. Therefore, his word (λόγος, logos) has never been and is not now capricious.214
1:19For the Son of God, Jesus Christ, who was preached among you by us / For God’s Son, Jesus Christ, who was preached to you by us: It is important that the conjunction γάρ (gar), “for,” in the present context, is given its full weight as marking why something is said or done. This is because Paul rests much of his case on the clause it introduces.215 It acts to heighten the self-evident conclusion that Paul pronounces at the end of the sentence.216
The word order is important in this phrase. In the Greek text, the noun θεός (theos), “God,” comes before the conjunction and in doing so brings the Father into prominence, thus assisting us in seeing the sequence of Paul’s thoughts.217
The verb κηρύσσω (kēryssō), “to preach,” designates a public pronouncement. The word, however, was loaded with religious significance, nuancing a decree that was of divine origin—in this case, the proclamation of the trustworthiness of the Lord.218
even by me and Silvanus and Timotheus / by me and Silas and Timothy: Paul lists his two companions who assisted him in bringing the gospel to Corinth. The first is identified by two names in the KJV. In Acts he is referred to as Σιλᾶς (Silas), while in the Pauline letters he is called Σιλουανός (Silouanos), transliterated as “Silvanus” in the KJV. “Either he had two names (like Paul), one [Semitic], and one [Latin], or Silouanos is the [Latin] form of the same name as that is Grecized in Silas.”219 He was one of the “chief men,” indeed, a prophet, among the Saints at Jerusalem (Acts 15:22, 32). He was one of the delegates sent to Antioch to confirm the apostolic decree concerning Christian Jew/Gentile relations (see Acts 15:6–23). He remained in Antioch assisting in the work there and, at some point, risked his life for the sake of the gospel (Acts 15:26). His diligence as well as his apparent acceptance of those Gentiles who were converted to the Lord endeared him to Paul. It is therefore not surprising that Paul chose him as his companion for his second missionary journey (Acts 15:40–18:21).220
Paul’s second companion is also identified by two names in the KJV, “Timotheus” and “Timothy”; however, in this case they are both transliterations of the Greek name Τιμόθεος (Timotheos). He lived in the province of Lycaonia and likely in the city of Lystra. His father was a Greek married to “a Jewess” (Acts 16:1). His name is unknown but Paul’s letters do preserve the names of Timothy’s grandmother, Lois, and mother, Eunice, both of whom converted to Christianity, as did Timothy, likely as a child (2 Tim. 1:5). It may be that, because of their conversion, Eunice never had her son circumcised (Acts 16:3). In any case, it is clear that Timothy’s family did not observe Jewish norms, but mother and son were highly religious. Indeed, even at a young age Timothy distinguished himself not only in Lystra but also in nearby Iconium (Acts 16:2). It may have been his devotion to the Christian cause that brought him to the attention of Paul and Silas during the Apostle’s second missionary journey. When invited, he readily accepted their offer to accompany them on the rest of their mission. That, however, did require an act of tremendous faith on his part. Since his mother was Jewish and because of the matrilineal principle of descent, he would have been considered a Jew. Therefore, Paul insisted Timothy go through the ordeal of circumcision in order to be acceptable to both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 16:3). Thereafter, he became not only a companion to Paul but also a trusted emissary and full associate (συνεργός, synergos, Rom. 16:21)—not only on this mission but throughout their lives.221
was not yea and nay, but in him was yea / was not “yes” and “no” but it has always been “yes”: Here Paul uses the perfect tense of the verb γέγονεν (gegonen), “to be.” That tense denotes a past action whose result continues into the present. By using it, Paul makes a strong statement about the continual integrity of God—he always has and always will keep his word, and that is corroborated through the ministry of his Son.
1:20For all the promises of God in him are yea / For all God’s promises are “yes” in him: The noun ἐπαγγελία (epangelia), “promise,” carries with it an emphasis on obligation. When associated with God, it denotes a “divine assurance for good.”222 The third-person masculine pronoun auto, “him,” refers to the Son of God through whom the blessings and promises of God come to fulfillment, the divine “Yes.”
and in him Amen, unto the glory of God by us / Therefore also through him “Amen” is said by us to God’s glory: The Greek phrase is both convoluted and compact. It translates literally as “therefore also through him the Amen to God for glory through us.” The third-person singular pronoun autou, “him,” refers to Christ. The particle ἀμήν (amen) is a transliteration of the Hebrew אָמֵן (ʾāmên).223 The basis of the word means “trustworthy” and carries the sense of “truly,” meaning that which is correct and therefore reliable. Over time it became a solemn spoken affirmation, meaning “May it be so.” Thus, it expressed more than a wish but rather an approval and confirmation. It became very important in covenant making, for therewith the person bound him- or herself to its terms, conditions, curses, and blessings.224 This verse reveals Paul’s position that all God’s promises are both fulfilled and guaranteed in Christ. When the congregation recognizes what the Father has done through the Son, they give glory to God though their heartfelt “amen.”225
Analysis and Summary
In this section, Paul address one of the attacks that has been made on his character. He had indicated in an earlier epistle (1 Cor. 16:2–9) that he planned to spend some time with the Corinthian Saints before heading back to Jerusalem. Apparently, his change in itinerary became known to the people and opened the door for his detractors to accuse him of incompetence, caprice, or a lack of care.226 He begins his defense by confirming that his initial plans were to come to them before proceeding to Macedonia and then, once his work was done there, to return to them before proceeding to Jerusalem (1:15–18). Unfortunately, he explains, through no fault of his own, his plans had been interrupted. His point is that, due to circumstances beyond his control, he does not have a shred of a guilty conscience for not being able to follow through with his intent.
He assures his readers that he does not base his intentions according to mere human standards. The phrase he uses (κατὰ σάρκα, kata sarka) refers to human dynamics totally devoid of any spiritual quality.227 Paul refuses to have his readers believe he leads a godless life, and thus, he categorically denies that the change in his plans shows any fickleness, flaw of character, or lack of inspiration on his part (1:17).
The charge leveled against him was a heavy one. In that culture, vacillation and indecision were condemned, and not keeping one’s word was especially so. Since integrity carried a highly moral component, to default on it denigrated everything else a person did or said. Thus, the attack on Paul was likely designed to make all his teachings suspect. Therefore, it was especially important that he reassure his readers that, despite what his antagonists claimed, he did not follow the bad behavior of some saying “absolutely” in one breath and “no way” in the next (1:17).228
To bolster his point, Paul swears an oath that looks to the faithfulness of God. In doing so, the Apostle aligns his own integrity with that of the Father (1:18) and by this means assures his readers of his own faithfulness. Thus, he is able to shift the responsibility of actions from himself to God and thereby emphasize the lack of capriciousness in them.
To further his case, Paul appeals to the preachment of Christ as proclaimed by Silas, Timothy, and himself. They all acted in concert witnessing the truthfulness that was centered in but one unified message—the integrity of God.229 With him there is never vacillation, never a “yes” and “no,” but always a “yes” as seen in the ministry and life of his Son. Indeed, the Savior was “God’s unambiguous and unretracted ‘Yes’” (1:19).230
With this verse, Paul launches a rather clever justification for the change in his travel plans. His point is that as God’s word is consistent and not capricious, so too is and has been his word right from the beginning of his ministry among the Corinthians. The work and testimony of Timothy and Silas confirm this is so. No one could contest that these missionaries had brought the gospel to the Corinthians in saving power. Thus, they acted as God’s tools, and therefore their word was his word. The tacit message was that as the Father had been active in Paul’s life before, he remained active even now. Thus, any and all of Paul’s travel plans, including any changes in his itinerary, had come according to divine direction.231
The Apostle continues to stress his point concerning the centrality of Christ’s making God’s promises sure. As the Apostle says, the promises all find “yes” in Christ, meaning that he fulfills them. When the congregation recognizes this and give a heartfelt “amen,” by which they affirm the truth of the doctrine, it expresses their praise and glorification of God for what he has done (1:20).
The fulfillment of divine promises plays an important role in the theology of Paul. He sees the realization of them as a gift given through God’s grace. He alone has the power to fulfill his word (Rom. 4:21) and will do so because he is the “God who does not lie” (Titus 1:2, NIV). Therefore, God’s promises stand in contradistinction from the law of Moses. That law demanded perfect obedience for salvation, which no one could give (Rom. 3:19–20, 23). God’s promises of salvation, on the other hand, rested fully on the Son and demanded a person’s faith in him (Rom. 3:21–22). Paul saw that a person’s trust and reliance on Jesus, while striving to keep his commandments, opened a portal to the Father’s grace, and with its reception justification came (Rom. 3:24, 28; 4:16). By thus standing sin free through faith, the person’s salvation was assured (Rom. 5:1–3). For the Apostle, it was essential for his readers to understand that God’s promises, fulfilled in salvation, have been given an exclusive “yes” through Christ (2 Cor. 1:20). In sum, “the sending of Jesus, with all that he did, is God’s active ratification of all his promises of salvation.”232
The Saving Work of God, Christ, and the Holy Ghost (1:21–22)
The role that Paul intended for this particular piece to play is unclear. It is likely a heartfelt witness inspired by his articulation of the Father’s saving work. Whatever the case, it does contain one of the most remarkable, if brief, enunciations of the saving work of the Godhead.
1:21Now he which stablisheth us with you in Christ, . . . is God / Now it is God who strengthens us together with you in Christ: In this phrase, Paul uses the present participial form of the verb βεβαιόω (bebaioō), “establish, strengthen.” In the present context, it expresses the act that makes a person firm in commitment to something or someone.233 Paul is likely alluding to the shared testimony held by both the Apostle and his readers that makes them mutually committed to the Son. The present tense of the participle suggests that the current and ongoing reality of the God-given bond the Christian community shares is due to their mutual witness of who Christ was and is.234
In this verse, by exclusively using the title “Christ,” Paul focuses on Jesus as the Anointed One. The author of Hebrews states that the Father anointed the Son with “the oil of joy more than [all his] companions” (Heb. 1:9, Lexham English Bible). That anointing gave him the title of the “Anointed One” (Χριστός [Christos], “Christ,” in Greek, or מָשִׁיחַ [māšîaḥ], “the Messiah,” in Hebrew).235 Due to the anointing act being used almost exclusively as a means of delegating the authority that made its recipient king, prophet, or priest, the title bore much weight.
The preposition εἰς (eis), “in, into,” could be a marker of reference, and therefore the phrase could be translated as “in reference to Christ.” However, it seems better to see it as a marker of instrumentality meaning “through, or by means of Christ,” indicating that the Father uses the Son as the means of making the believer firm in the faith.236
It is noteworthy that Paul separates himself from the Corinthian Saints by use of the plural pronouns ἡμᾶς (hēmas), “us,” and ὑμῖν (hymin), “you.” Besides Paul, it is difficult to know who else he had in mind. He could be thinking of his missionary companions. Given, however, that the issue in Second Corinthians is that of apostolic authority, Paul may have been thinking of all those who held apostolic authority. The phrase does make it clear that whoever “us” and “you” are, both share together the strength of Christ that holds them firm to the faith.
and hath anointed us / and has anointed us: The verb χρίω (chriō), “to anoint,” denotes rubbing, smearing, or dabbing olive oil on an individual, through which he or she receives special powers or is invested with certain authority necessary in the performance of a duty.237 The practice in the Old Testament was limited to the setting apart of kings, prophets, and priests. The word stands in distinction to ἀλείφω (aleiphō), the verb used generally in the Bible to indicate an anointing with oil. This kind of anointing, however, did not bequeath power or authority but was used for the purpose of healing, refreshing, honoring a person, or preparing a body for burial.238
Because Paul’s statement referring to God’s anointing lacks context, it is hard to know exactly who and what he is referring to. The problem is exacerbated by the ambiguity of the plural pronoun ἡμᾶς (hēmas), “us,” which could refer to a group which the Corinthian Saints were either included in or excluded from.
If it includes them, then Paul appears to be using the phrase figuratively, as did Peter when he testified that “God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Ghost and with power” (Acts 10:38; compare 1 John 2:20, 27). If that is the case, then the Apostle is referring to the bequeathing of the gift of the Holy Ghost after baptism. If so, it refers neither to “an outpouring of the Holy Spirit” nor to “a flash of spiritual insight, as may be the case in the life of any sincere investigator of the truth,” but to the receiving of “a manifold outpouring of this greatest of all gifts, to actually receive the companionship of this member of the Godhead.”239
If the phrase excludes the Saints, then Paul is likely referring to an apostolic endowment of power and authority held by all those who share this office.
1:22Who hath also sealed us / He has also sealed us: The verb σφραγίζω (sphragizō), “to seal,” denotes the act of providing something with a seal as a security measure. The major purpose of the seal is to guarantee that the contents of the thing sealed are not tampered with. The act marks the object’s permanence and purity. Further, the seal indicates the owner; what he seals belongs to him. There is an important additional dimension in its use here that points to the endowing of the object with divine power.240
Paul uses the term in a metaphorical sense to designate a major work of the Father in relation to those he has chosen—namely, sealing them as his own and as a result into eternal life (compare Eph. 1:13). That Paul uses the middle voice of the participle (σφραγισάμενος, sphragisamenos) is important because that voice shows that God has a vested interest in the act of sealing and empowering the person.241 In short, the performance is not only for the good of the Saints but also for that of the Father himself.242
The question remains as to whom Paul has in mind. Definitely the circle of the sealed ones includes those, like Paul, who have been called to apostolic authority. But based on his declaration in Ephesians 1:13–14, righteous Saints are not excluded. Yet, due to his rocky relationship with the some of the Corinthian Saints, he may have excluded them.
and given the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts / and placed the pledge of the Spirit in our hearts: The noun ἀρραβών (arrabōn), “pledge, earnest, deposit,”243 is a technical term that denotes a down payment or initial installment that guarantees the full amount of a contract will be paid. It prohibits the seller from disposing of the item and assures the buyer that it will be hers or his, whatever the duration, as long as she or he meets the conditions of the contract.244 In a theological sense, the item is ultimately eternal life. The assurance or guarantee that a person will receive it is the gift of the Holy Ghost. It acts as the deposit or first installment and, thus, the guarantee that the person will actually achieve what is for now but a wonderous prospect. In the short term, however, the pledge of the Spirit shows that a person is, at present, God’s own, his son or his daughter.245
The noun καρδία (kardia), “heart,” used here metaphorically, connotes the entire spectrum of mental and emotional activities, including all rational elements.246 It comprises the “hidden springs of the personal life.”247 What is placed there cannot be denied or gainsaid. Thus, the most sure place God can put his assurance that a person will have eternal life is in the heart.
Again, just who Paul has in mind remains ambiguous, but nothing here excludes faithful members of Christ’s kingdom.
There is one more important point that these verses teach. The words “anointed” and “given” (in connection with the seal) are aorist participles. This aspect suggests that the bedrock of the testimony shared by this group is the work that God has simply completed already in anointing and sealing them. The Holy Spirit they have received may be a token of their filial relationship with the Father and also act as the assurance of their eternal life (compare Eph. 4:30).
Analysis and Summary
Just what Paul’s intent is in this tangential but very informative piece remains ambiguous. The problem lies in his separation of himself from the community of the Corinthian Saints by the use of “us” (ἡμᾶς, hēmas) and “you” (ὑμῖν, hymin) in 1:21 and then referring just to “us” throughout the rest of 1:21–22. His language does not reveal if he intended to keep the separation going. If he were following his original flow of thought, and thereby following up on his word play of “amen” (a strong affirmation of agreement), then his use of “us” would include the whole community. In that case, he would be extracting the maximum value he could from the point he made and thus emphasizing all that the Father had done through the apostolic ministry for the Christian community. It would also reference all that they shared in.
On the other hand, if he were keeping the separation going, then his purpose was defensive, thus stressing the difference between him and the Saints. His purpose in these verses was to build up the basis of his own trustworthiness by showing all that the Father had done for him and, by inclusion, all those with apostolic authority. If that is the case, then these verses act as a rebuttal to the innuendoes of Paul’s detractors. He is, thus, testifying that he and his companions in the ministry are men of probity and trustworthiness since the Father has given them his spirit-based seal.248
What can be said for sure is that, given Paul’s teachings in other places (5:5; Eph. 1:13–14), he believes that all the faithful can enjoy the strengthening, anointing, and sealing by God and thereby receive the deposit of the Spirit. This pericope is, thus, a beautiful climax listing the affirmations of what the Father has done for those who have joined together in their oneness with the Son. It is God who has made the Saints firm in their commitment through the Savior, given them the anointing or gift of the Holy Ghost, sealed them into eternal life through that power (and their continued faithfulness), and then guaranteed them eternal life (1:21).
God does not keep the faithful Saints in doubt as to their standing with him and his promises. He gives them the assurance that they will have eternal life as they follow his ways. That assurance is the Gift of the Holy Ghost. Having the power of the Spirit in their lives is, then, more than a promise of eternal life; it is the guarantee that they will receive it as they continue faithful. In another place, Paul referred to this as being sealed by “the holy Spirit of promise” (Eph. 1:14). The phrase looks specifically at the role of the Holy Ghost as the sealing and ratifying agent of the Godhead. He has been given the power “to ratify and approve the righteous acts of men [and women] so that those acts are binding on earth and in heaven” (see D&C 132:7). “An act which is sealed by the Holy Spirit of Promise is one which is ratified by the Holy Ghost; it is one which is approved by the Lord; and the person who has taken the obligation upon himself is justified by the Spirit in the thing he has done.”249
Paul states that God places this assurance or guarantee in a person’s heart (1:21). While in modern usage, the heart is the seat of emotion; in the Apostle’s world it connoted the whole spectrum of mental and emotional activities that includes all rational elements.250 Therefore, this assurance was more than a mere emotional tug, but a declaration that touches both the emotional and intellectual levels of the soul.
The essence of what Paul is saying in 1:20–22 centers on his use of the verb “to seal” (σφραγίζω, sphragizō). The term denotes the act of placing one’s signet or monogram on something. Doing so secures for that person the property thus marked. Though the religious and eschatological element (referring to the assurance of eternal life) lies behind the idea and therefore cannot be ignored, it does not stand in center place in this case. Paul’s point is that “by the Spirit, who is the foretaste and down payment of what God has promised to give believers, the Corinthian Christians have been claimed as God’s property. They belong to God.”251
Also noteworthy is that in 1:21 Paul’s words suggest a tripartite division of labor among the members of the Godhead. The Father is the initiator of all aspects of the salvation process, but his specific work is to anoint the Saints by giving them the Holy Spirit and setting his seal upon them. The work of Christ is to make the people firm in their gospel commitments, and the work of the Holy Ghost is to act as the down payment on and therefore the assurance of eternal life.252
Why Paul Postponed His Visit (1:23–24)
In these last two verses of this chapter, Paul clearly picks up his defense and explains precisely why he did not come directly to Corinth from Ephesus. His argument continues through 2:4.
1:23Moreover I call God for a record upon my soul / Now I call upon God as a witness upon my soul: Having illustrated his rightness with God as one whom the Father has established for, sealed upon, and guaranteed eternal life, Paul returns to his defense. The verb ἐπικαλέω (epikaleō), “to call upon,” carries the nuance of appealing to a higher power to settle an issue (see Acts 25:11–12, 21). Since the ultimate power is that of the Divine, the word carries heavy religious overtones and is thus often found, as here, as a means of invoking an oath.253 Paul’s invocation shows just how serious he is. The noun μάρτυς (martys), “witness,” carries legal connotations referring to one who testifies to or affirms the truth of something.254 Since God is all knowing, he is the ultimate witness.
The pronoun ἐπί (epi), “for,” has a wide range of meanings, including making reference in behalf of or against something.255 The noun ψυσχή (psychē), “soul,” in the present context refers to the very center or essence of a person, the seat of his or her emotions, desires, affections, and aversions.256 Thus, the whole phrase, τὴν ἐμὴν ψυχήν (tēn emēn psychēn), could be rendered as “upon my life” or “against my life.” The nuance is that Paul is willing to put his life on the line to show that he is not lying.257
that to spare you I came not as yet unto Corinth / that it was to spare you that I did not come again to Corinth: The noun φείδομαι (pheidomai), “to spare,” means to save someone from pain or hurt.258 Paul gives this as the main reason why he did not stop at Corinth after leaving Ephesus.
1:24Not for that we have dominion over your faith, / Not that we would lord it over your faith: The verb κυριεύω (kyrieuō), “rule, have dominion, lord over,” denotes the act of exercising authority,259 and though it often refers to rulership and governance, it carries a strong negative nuance that includes ruling harshly as well as exercising unrighteous dominion by the unjust use of power. In this context, it carries the tinge of a showy displaying of airs and the oppressive use of authority, specifically dominance over the faith of the Corinthian Saints.260
but are helpers of your joy / but rather we are workers with you for your joy: The noun συνεργός (synergos) pertains to two or more parties working together for a common goal. In that context, it denotes a helper or fellow worker.261 The noun χαρά (chara), “joy,” refers to what brings sustained pleasure and more specifically rejoicing.262 It suggests a deep-rooted, even rapturous, emotion.
for by faith ye stand / because you stand firm in the faith:The conjunction γάρ (gar), “for, because,” in the present context points to the reason why Paul and his companions act toward the Saints the way they do. The verb ἵστημι (histēmi), “to stand,” carries the nuance of being firm in one’s faith.263 It is found here in the perfect tense, suggesting that these people were and still are firm in their trust in the Savior. It is for this reason that Paul and his associates can work with them toward the same end—namely, joy. The noun πίστις (pistis), in the present context, refers to the whole of the gospel in both principle and doctrine.264
Analysis and Summary
Working to drive home the reason why he changed his travel plans, Paul makes what amounts to a solemn oath invoking God as his witness (1:23). The verb he uses, “to call” (ἐπικαλέω, epikaleō), carries strong civil and religious overtones. It connotes calling upon a higher authority to verify a fact or position. Paul’s calling upon God to do so shows his absolute sureness of his position, for as the scriptures make clear, God knows the “reins and the heart” (Jer. 20:12; see also Jer. 17:10 and Rev. 2:13)—that is, everything about the person, including his or her most inner secrets. So certain is Paul of his position that, in taking the oath, he also puts his own life on the line. By means of such a solemn declaration, the Apostle assures his readers of the truthfulness of what he is about to say.265 He likely designed this rather bold act to have a considerable sobering effect upon his target audience.
Having made his declaration, Paul gives the major reason why he adjusted his travel plans (1:23). He had already caused some of these people quite a bit of grief due to both his harsh letter and their initial support of one of his major antagonists. Further, whenever he came, he would have to confront and likely discipline any he felt were out of the correct way.266 He was hoping that by biding his time, he would give them a chance to repent if necessary and determine where they stood in relationship to him. The question was, then, not one of the purpose or appropriateness of his visit, but of its timing.267 In the next verse he explains further why he changed his itinerary.
Paul’s words do raise a question: How can he say that he wants to spare the Saints pain but deny any intent to lord it over them? The answer is likely because what he wants to spare them from is specifically the need for apostolic reproof and correction (13:2), albeit even here he would use “the meekness and gentleness of Christ” (10:1–2). His objective is not, however, to dictate, demand, or impose faithfulness and trust in Christ.268 Indeed, Paul fully understands that true faith in the Lord can be neither coerced nor result from fear. “Instead, it has right relationship as its source and ‘joy’ as its outcome.”269 It is the latter to which the Apostle joins with the Saints to produce, for it is the ultimate aim of Christian living.270
In sum, the Apostle wants his readers to encourage and gladden his heart, but that could not happen if Paul’s actions among them only resulted in further hurt and alienation. By waiting, he believes they will get their house fully in order such that when he does come, they will all share in a common joy because they now stand firm in the covenant (1:24). In sum, his choice to not visit them “was not an act of refraining from love,” of which some may have accused him, “but an act of love.”271
Notes
1. Although some scholars feel that 1 Cor. was that letter—and it has harsh elements—that is unlikely. From what 2 Cor. states, the harsh letter was exactly that and nothing more. Anderson, Understanding Paul, 131; Harris, Second Epistle, 54–58.
2. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 55. For a study on the subject of letter writing in New Testament times, see Hans-Josef Klauck, Ancient Letters and the New Testament: A Guide to Context and Exegesis, trans., Daniel P. Bailey (Waco, Tex.: Baylor University Press, 2006).
4. An exact parallel to the noun’s meaning in the New Testament is hard to find, but ancient documents do attest the idea of “envoy” and “messenger.” James H. Moulton and George Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament: Illustrations from the Papyri and Other Non-literary Sources (1930; rpt., Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1985), 70 (hereafter cited as MM); BDAG, 122.
6. BDAG, 447; Otto Schrenk, “θέλμα,” in TDNT, 3:52–62.
7. Though the preposition δία (dia) is translated as “by” in the NRSV, NIV, and REB, the translation as “through” better catches the nuance of the Greek because it shows agent, mode, means, and efficient cause. See BDAG, 223–26.
8. Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Second Edition: A Companion Volume to the United Bible Societies’ Greek New Testament (Fourth Revised Edition) (Stuttgart, Ger.: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft/United Bible Societies, 1994), 505. The change may show a changing Christological emphasis where the very Jewish Paul highlights Jesus as the expected Messiah while later scribes emphasize Jesus as a person.
9. BDAG, 1091. In the New Testament, מָשִׁיחַ (māšîaḥ) is consistently translated as Χριστός (Christos). There are, however, two places where a transliterated form appears. See John 1:41; 4:25.
10. BDAG, 1090; MM, 693. Members of the LDS Church should relate, having been given the initially pejorative nickname “Mormon.” Early detractors of the Church said the name derived from the Greek Μορμώ (Mormō), referring to a she-monster or bogeyman. Henry G. Liddell and Robert Scott, comps., Greek English Lexicon, rev. and aug. Henry Stuart Jones (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), 1147 (hereafter cited as LSJ). For Joseph Smith’s response insisting the name means “more good,” see Times and Seasons 4 (May 15, 1843): 194, and for its general acceptance today, see Gordon B. Hinckley, “Mormon Should Mean ‘More Good,’” Ensign 20, no. 11 (November 1990): 51–54.
17. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 58; Victor Paul Furnish, II Corinthians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, Anchor Bible Series (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1984), 100.
23. BDAG, 1079–81; Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (New York: United Bible Societies, 1989), §§25.89; 33.350; 88.66 (hereafter cited as Louw-Nida).
25. For studies of grace from an LDS perspective, see Draper and Rhodes, Paul’s First Epistle to the Corinthians, 76–100; and Brent J. Schmidt, Relational Grace: The Reciprocal and Binding Covenant of Charis (Provo, Utah: BYU Studies, 2015), who concludes, “The meaning commonly understood by a broad range of cultures up until the fifth century was that grace was the essence of a two-way, unequal, reciprocal, binding agreement between two parties in which both were obligated to each other” (201).
26. Bruce C. Hafen, “Grace,” in Encyclopedia of Mormonism, ed. Daniel H. Ludlow, 4 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 2:562 (hereafter cited as EM).
27. Robert L. Millet, What Happened to the Cross?: Distinctive LDS Teachings (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2007), 120. One of the effects the Holy Ghost has on the Saints is that of strengthening not only their desires to act righteously, but also strengthening the ability to act. Furthermore, as they act upon this grace by serving others, they move from one level of grace to a higher level just as the Savior did. See D&C 93:12–20.
31. For a study, see Werner Foester, “κύριος,” in TDNT, 3:1039–96.
32. Richard Bauckham, God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1999), 45–77; and Larry W. Hurtado, One God, One Lord: Early Christian Devotion and Ancient Jewish Monotheism, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1998), 93–128, have both shown the strong identity between Jesus and God as viewed in earliest Christianity. Much of this is based on the Church’s appropriation of the Old Testament title to apply it to Jesus.
34. For example, see Epictetus, Discourses 3.22, where the philosopher states that a genuine Cynic must see himself as an envoy of Zeus. For a discussion, see Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, “ἀπόσολος” in TDNT, 1:409–13.
36. Given the Gentile influence that permeated the Galilee, it is not beyond question that the Lord knew Greek and may have actually used this term. It is more likely, however, that he appealed to Jewish ideas. Some have argued that the same idea is carried by the Hebrew term שָׁלִיחַ (šālîaḥ) and the Aramaic שְׁלִיחַ (šĕlîaḥ) that is, the divine giving of authority and responsibility to someone to carry out a task. See Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, corrected ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 1018–19 (hereafter cited as BDB). This idea, however, has not gone unchallenged, but the idea of a divine commissioning cannot be discounted. For discussion, see F. Hossfeld-van der Velden, TDOT, 15:49–55.
37. Witherington, Conflict and Community, 354; for discussion, see Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 57.
38. Judges 20:2 notes that the Israelites met “in an assembly of the people of God” (בִּקְהַל עַם הָאֱלֹהִים, biqĕhal ʿam hāʾĕlōhîm). The LXX translates this as ἐν ἐκκλησίᾳ τοῦ λαοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ (en ekklēsia tou laou tou theou).
41. This was the opinion of the early Christian theologian John Chrysostom (d. AD 407). See The Homilies on Second Epistle of St. Paul, the Apostle, to the Corinthians 1:2.
45.NID, 1:130. Over the centuries, Christian thinkers began to associate the word more and more with persons of unusual holiness who possessed unusual grace that manifested itself in miracles. Due to such qualities, they came to be viewed as persons who, after death, had influence with the Divine. As a result, some Christians began to worship them such that even their relics became a source of power. For a study, see Lawrence S. Cunningham, The Meaning of Saints (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1980).
46. Mark E. Petersen, “Signs of the True Church,” Ensign 9, no. 5 (May 1979): 22; italics in original. See also D. Kelly Ogden and Andrew C. Skinner, Verse by Verse: Acts through Revelation (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1998), 130.
47. Nelson Mandela is quoted as saying, “A saint is a sinner who keeps on trying” to become spiritually better. Dale G. Renlund, “Latter-day Saints Keep On Trying,” Ensign 45, no. 5 (May 2015): 56.
48. See C. Eric Ott, “Sanctification,” in EM, 4:1259–60.
49. Paul was not the only one to use the phrase. See also 1 Pet. 1:2; 2 Pet. 1:2, and Rev. 1:4.
50. For a discussion, see NID, 1:365–376; Karl Heinrich Rengstorf, “Ἀπόστολος,” in TDNT, 1:424–43.
52. The Lord’s placing twelve men as the senior authorities in his church in America also demonstrates this. See 3 Ne. 11:18–12:1 and compare 3 Ne. 13:25–34; 15:11–16:20; 18:36–37; 27:13–21.
60. The latter is of particular interest since ancient manuscripts differ on the gender of the person, thus some allowance for a woman to be numbered among the apostles, albeit not as a member of the Twelve, must be given. Metzger, Textual Commentary, 475–76.
61. For discussion, see Anderson, Understanding Paul, 36–37.
63. A doxology is not a prayer per se, but a heartfelt exclamation of adoration and love for the Divine expressed by the word εὐλογητός (eulogētos), “blessed.” Bernard, “Second Epistle,” 38.
64. Hermann W. Beyer, “εὐλογέω, εὐλογητός, εὐλογία, ἐνευλογέω,” in TDNT, 2:754–66.
65. Beyer, “εὐλογέω,” in TDNT, 2:761–65. The expression exposes Paul’s pharisaical background as it echoes Jewish prayers of the day, especially that of the bĕrākâ, “blessing,” particularly in the Eighteen Benedictions also known as the Shemoneh Esreh. See David Instone-Brewer, “The Eighteen Benedictions and the Minim before 70 CE,” Journal of Theological Studies 54 (April 2003): 41–42.
69. This nuance is very strong in both the Masoretic and Septuagintal texts. The Hebrew root נחם (nḥm) in the niphal generally means “be sorry, rue, suffer grief, repent, of one’s own doings” and is most often translated as “repent” in the KJV, but in the piel, it means “comfort, console.” L. Köhler, W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm, The Hebrew and English Lexicon, trans. and ed. M. E. J. Richardson, 5 vols. (Leiden, Neth.: E. J. Brill, 1994–2000), 636–37 (hereafter cited as HAL). See also BDB, 636–37.
70.Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of Synonyms (Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1984), s.v. “comfort.”
71. BDAG, 766. The verb form includes such nuances as “to strengthen, cheer, enliven, and reassure,” but the heaviest weight is on “to comfort” and “to encourage.” Otto Schmitz, “παρακαλέω, παράκλησις,” in TDNT, 5:774–79.
76. The breadth of the meanings of both the verb and noun should be kept in mind in reading the word and the best nuance dictated by the context should be applied. See C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1973), 60.
78. Heinrich Schlier, “θλίβω θλῖψις,” in TDNT, 3:139–40. Because the noun “tribulation” is derived from the Latin tribulum, which denotes the drag used in threshing grain, it reflects the idea behind θλίψις (thlipsis) very well.
84. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 71. Paul understood that Christians were fellow-sufferers with the Savior (Rom. 8:17; Philip. 3:10; Col. 1:22; and specifically in 2 Cor. 4:10–11). However, there was another dimension that was likely playing in the background. Jewish doctrine held the idea of “the afflictions of the Messiah” (חַבְלֵי הַמָּשִׁיחַ, ḥablê hammašiaḥ). The concept pointed not to the suffering he would endure but rather to that associated with the messianic age and that which his followers would endure until the coming age of joy. It was a small step for the Christians to identify with this idea. Martin, 2 Corinthians, 143.
88. F. Blass and A. Debrunner, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, trans. and ed. Robert W. Funk (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1961), §371 (hereafter cited as BDF).
90. BDAG, 985–86. According to MM, 622, the noun “came to denote Messianic and spiritual salvation, either as a present possession, . . . or as to be realized fully hereafter.”
102. God’s temporal orientation is revealed in the Psalmists recognition of him as “God of my righteousness” (Ps. 18:46), and “God of our salvation” (Ps. 85:4), both statements pertaining to a mortal situation. Seifrid, Second Letter, 18 and n. 94.
111. His strong statement of hope for the Saints here stands in contradistinction to the fear he voices in 5:20 and 6:1 that they might fall into apostasy. He here might build up support so that when he turns to chastise them they will be willing to heed his word. B. J. Oropeza, Exploring Second Corinthians: Death and Life, Hardship and Rivalry (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016), 72–73.
116. BDAG, 12–13, but it can also denote willful ignorance. MM, 4.
117. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 78. David Starling, “‘We Do Not Want You to Be Unaware . . .’: Disclosure, Concealment and Suffering in 2 Cor 1–7,” New Testament Studies 60, no. 2 (2014): 276, looks at the grammar in 1:8 and how it differs from standard disclosure language. This double negative, instead of standard disclosure language, works “both to introduce the topic of Paul’s afflictions in Asia and to express a disavowal of any attempt on his part to conceal them from the Corinthians.”
118. BDAG, 18; NID, 1:149. The term ἀδελφός (adelphos) carries the idea of family relationship. Jesus taught that, figuratively and also spiritually, those who do God’s will by obeying the Son’s word are his brothers and sisters as well as his mother. In short, they are members of his spiritual but nonetheless real family (Matt. 3:31–35). The Qumran literature uses the term אָח (aḥ) in the figurative sense of communal family membership (see, for example, 1QS 6.22; 1QSa 1.18) that reflects the idea found in Pauline literature where it bears a strong sense of “siblings.” Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 391 n. 2.
119. Barrett, Second Epistle, 63–64. He may have alluded to this event in Philip. 1:12–26. Compare Acts 19:23; 1 Cor. 15:32.
120. BDAG, 1032. The basic idea behind the word is “throwing beyond” others and therefore denotes, on the positive side, the idea of excellence, super abundance, supereminence. On the negative side it denotes what is out of measure or beyond measure. See Gerhard Delling, “ὑπερβάλλω, ὑπερβαλλόντως, ὑπερβολή,” in TDNT, 8:520–22.
122. Martin, 2 Corinthians, 149. See G. Adolf Deissmann, Bible Studies: Contributions Chiefly from Papyri and Inscriptions to the History of the Language, the Literature, and the Religion of Hellenistic Judaism and Primitive Christianity, trans. Alexander Grieve (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1988), 257, who examines the technical language found here and suggests it carries the modern idea of a “death-warrant.”
123. In the New Testament, the word is found only as the passive deponent ἐξαπορέομαι (exaporeomai), meaning “to be utterly at a loss.” See BDAG, 345. It expresses “a state of excess to an extraordinary degree.” Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 82.
124. BDAG, 113; Friedrich Büchsel, “ἀπόκριμα,” in TDNT, 3:945–46.
125. C. J. Hemer, “A Note on 2 Corinthians 1:9,” Tyndale Bulletin 23 (1972): 103–7.
131. BDAG, 907–8. Although both “rescue” and “deliver” denote freeing one from confinement, danger, or even death, “rescue” is the better translation here because the English word denotes delivering a person from imminent danger. Dictionary of Synonyms, s.v. “rescue.” See also Martin, 2 Corinthians, 148.
137. BDAG, 887–88. When the prophet Alma asked “Have ye received [Christ’s] image in your countenances?” (Alma 5:14), the context is that of the whole person.
138. Paul often uses noun πρόσωπον (prosōpon), but with various nuances such as the actual face (3:7, 12, 18; 4:6; 11:20), one’s appearance (5:12; 10:7), and one’s presence (2:10; 8:24; 10:1). Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 87.
139. The word can denote a large number of people. BDAG, 847.
140. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 86. There may be a play on the idea of brokerage going on there. The idea is that there is an intermediary in the patron-client system that facilitates the relationship between the two. David Briones, “Mutual Brokers of Grace: A Study in 2 Corinthians 1.3–11,” New Testament Studies 56, no. 4 (October 2010): 536–56, states that in 2 Cor 1:3–11, Paul shows a “mutual brokerage” relationship. On the one hand, God is the patron and Paul is the broker with the Corinthians as clients. On the other hand, since the Corinthians also help Paul receive God’s grace (1:11), Paul is also a client and the Corinthians are brokers. This relationship ensures, Briones notes on page 554, “that each participant in this economy depends upon the other to receive grace from God.”
141. Oropeza, Exploring Second Corinthians, 186–89; Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 79–81. Both explore the various opinions on this subject. These sources include the suggestion that Paul was referring to his strained relationship with the Corinthians, to a serious, even life threatening illness (possibly referred to in 2 Cor. 12:7), to an imprisonment in which he and others felt they were on death row.
144. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 86. Furnish, II Corinthians, 125, and Witherington, Conflict and Community, 360, suggests that the Apostle’s primary objective in his outreach to the branch was “to build up goodwill and compassion” between him and his readers and to get them to unite with him.
149. Paul boasts only “to remind his enemies of his credentials on knowing Judaism, suffering, and the visions of the Lord.” Anderson, Understanding Paul, 135.
150. For example, see Prov. 16:31; 17:6, where a form of the noun in the LXX is translated as “glory” in the KJV.
151. Compare Judg. 7:2; 1 Sam. 2:3; Jer. 12:13; and Ezek. 24:25. Witherington, Conflict and Community, 362.
158. BDAG, 11; Otto Procksch, “ἁγιότης,” in TDNT, 1:114.
159. BDAG, 282; Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 95. For a study of Paul’s self-depiction in 1:12–14, see John T. Fitzgerald, Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of the Catalogues of Hardships in the Corinthian Correspondence (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988), 166–80.
160. BDAG, 914. For an extended study of the idea of “flesh” in biblical times, see Eduard Schweizer, “σάρξ, σαρκικός, σάρκινος,” in TDNT, 7:98–151.
162. This is particularly true of the rejection of the central tenet of Paul’s theology, “Christ crucified” (1 Cor. 1:23; 2:2). The wisdom of the cross is all-important to him (1 Cor. 1:17–18; Gal. 6:12–16; Col. 1:20).
163. The verb יָרֵא (yārêʾ), though primarily meaning “to fear” or “be full of dread,” in its positive nuances, as used here, carries the notion of reverential awe and deep respect. HAL, 433; BDB, 431.
164. See Isa. 50:4. Compare Matt. 10:16–20; Acts 6:10; D&C 11:21; NID, 4:330–39.
166. Louw-Nida, §57.103. Once given, the recipient of such grace was obligated to give unselfish service to others in turn. Thus, they would move from one level of grace or ability to a higher level. See D&C 93:19–20.
167. The verb has a wide range of meanings (see BDAG, 72) but, in the broader Greek culture, it referred to a life lived according to patterns of high social and ethical conduct. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 95.
174. BDAG, 369. There is no doubt that Paul did weave allusions and echoes of Christian history into his writings. Laurence L. Welborn, “Paul and Pain: Paul’s Emotional Therapy in 2 Corinthians 1.1–2.13; 7.5–16 in the Context of Ancient Psychagogic Literature,” New Testament Studies 57, no. 4 (2011): 547–70, shows that, although some scholars discredit the idea because his audience would not have understood such, in actuality all knew the single narrative in which Jesus’ death and resurrection were decisive moments and which Paul believed himself to carry forward in its new phase, and thereby they were able to follow him. See also N. T. Wright, “Israel’s Scriptures in Paul’s Narrative Theology,” Theology 115, no. 5 (2012): 323–29.
179. A number of Old Testament prophets looked to this day. For example, see Isa. 2:2–21; Joel 1–3; Amos 8:9–11; 9:9–12. It is a day when all things shall be made known. For example, see Isa. 57:17–21; Luke 8:17; 12:3; 2 Ne. 27:11; D&C 88:108–10. For discussions from an LDS point of view, see James E. Talmage, Vitality of Mormonism (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1919), 173–75; Ezra Taft Benson, “Prepare Yourselves for the Great Day of the Lord,” devotional, Brigham Young University, April 14, 1981, Provo, Utah, audio recording and transcript, https://speeches.byu.edu/talks/ezra-taft-benson/prepare-great-day-lord/; and Bruce R. McConkie, The Millennial Messiah (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1982), 24–29.
181. It is, unfortunately, possible for people to be misled by their conscience believing desperately that they are doing what is right. Paul, however, assures his readers that his conscience is clear due to divine manifestation. Indeed, it is this heavenly reassurance on which the Apostle’s confidence is based. Garland, 2 Corinthians, 89.
183. This problem was well-known, for 2 Pet. 3:15–16 states that Paul wrote according to the wisdom given him but “there are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the unlearned and unstable twist to their own destruction” (our translation).
192. Although a person is not obligated to anyone except God for the enjoyment of heavenly gifts, the person, by accepting the Father’s grace, becomes obligated to serve humankind. See D&C 93:19–20.
193. For further study, see Translation Notes and the Analysis on 12:9.
200. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 105. Seifrid, Second Letter, 56, notes that the grace of God had been given to Paul and that determined his earlier conduct among the Saints (1:12). When putting his initial itinerary together, he hoped to fully share that grace with them through the two visits.
210. BDAG, 733–34. Paul’s words echo the teaching of the Savior in Matt. 5:37 and the warning in James 5:12. Seifrid, Second Letter, 57. See also David Wenham, “2 Corinthians 1:17, 18: Echo of the Dominical Legion,” Novum Testamentum 28, no. 3 (1986), 271–79.
212. Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammarbeyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1996), 671; Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 109 n. 18.
214. Martin, 2 Corinthians, 163. With the use of the noun λόγος (logos), “word,” the Apostle could be echoing John 1:1–3, thus, associating his actions to those of the Lord who was “the Word” that was made flesh. John 1:14. Barnett, Second Epistle, 103.
222. BDAG, 355; Julius Schniewind and Friedrich Gerhard, “ἐπαγγέλλω, ἐπαγγελλία, ἐπάγγελμα, προεπαγγέλλομαι,” in TDNT, 2:576–86.
223. In 1 Cor. 14:16, “amen” also carries the definite article. The Hebrew root אמן (ʾmn) nuances the idea of solidarity or agreement with what the preachment, confession, or prayer had to say. Martin, 2 Corinthians, 163 n. 25.
224. BDB, 53. For a study, see J. L. Wu, “Liturgical Elements,” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 558–59.
226. On what the Corinthians may or may not have known about Paul’s travel plans, see Harris, Second Epistle, 196.
227. The phrase κατὰ σάρκα (kata sarka) is a uniquely Pauline expression. He uses it to denote a person’s heritage (for example, see Rom. 1:3; 4:1; 9:3), but also to refer to what is limited to a human perspective (for example, see 5:16; 1 Cor. 1:26; Eph. 6:5; and Col. 3:22), and specifically to identify a worldly pattern of life that stands opposite to one filled and directed by the Spirit (for example, see 10:2–3; 11:18; and Rom. 8:4–5, 12–13).
228. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 107–8 with n. 13. A modern idiom would be to speak out of both sides of one’s mouth.
229. Their combined word would fulfill the law of witness. See Deut. 19:15; compare Deut. 17:6; Num. 35:30; and Martin, 2 Corinthians, 162.
234. Although the tense is present, it carries an imperfect aspect suggesting an ongoing movement. Guthrie, 2 Corinthians, 114 n. 34.
235. The scripture highlights his anointing through which he gained royal status. For a study, see Sungho Choi, The Messianic Kingship of Jesus: A Study of Christology and Redemptive History in Matthew’s Gospel with Special Reference to the Royal-Enthronement Psalms (Eugene, Ore.: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011).
238. BDAG, 41; Franco Montanari, The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek, ed. Madeleine Goh and Chad Schroeder (Leiden: Brill, 2015), s.v. “ἀλείφω” (hereafter cited as DAG).
239. Bruce R. McConkie, Doctrinal New Testament Commentary, 3 vols. (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1973), 3:383.
240. BDAG, 980; compare John 6:27. For a study, see G. W. H. Lampe, The Seal of the Spirit: A Study in the Doctrine of Baptism and Confirmation in the New Testament and the Fathers, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 1976). Paul speaks metaphorically of sealing Rom. 4:11; 15:28; 1 Cor. 9:2.
242. See Moses 1:39, which states that God’s work and glory is for the exaltation of his children. According to D&C 132:6, God instituted the new and everlasting covenant not only for the Saints’ salvation but for his own glory. Furthermore, the promises he gave to Abraham were designed to continue the “works of [the] Father, wherein he glorifieth himself” (D&C 132:31).
243. BDAG, 134; Yon-Gyong Kwon, “Ἀρραβών as Pledge in Second Corinthians,” New Testament Studies 54, no. 4 (2008): 525–41.
244.NID, 1:404–5; Harris, Second Epistle, 207–8. The word is related to the Hebrew עֵרָבוֹן (ʿērābôn) that denotes a “security, pledge.” HAL, 881.
245. Ogden and Skinner, Verse by Verse, 150. This teaching is congruent with the doctrine of being “born again.” (John 3:1–7). The necessity arose due to sin through which the person lost his or her place in the family of God (Moses 6:55–60; Mosiah 16:4–9). Thus, the person must be born again to regain that position (John 3:1–7; Alma 5:49; 7:14). The process is twofold: a person must first be reborn into the family of Christ (Ether 3:14; Mosiah 5:7) who then brings them into the family of the Father (D&C 76:24). The process begins when a person yields to the preaching of the gospel (1 Pet. 1:23). It is having the Holy Ghost active in one’s life that is the sign that one has been born again.
246. In modern culture the heart is tied more directly to the emotional side of a person while the brain or head is tied to the conscious or rational side. Such was not the case in a New Testament context. See Johannes Behm, “καρδία,” in TDNT, 3:605–14.
249. Bruce R. McConkie, Doctrinal New Testament Commentary, 3 vols. (Salt Lake City: Bookcraft, 1973), 2:494 (hereafter cited as DNTC). In connection with Ephesians 1:13–14, Joseph Smith taught that the sealing of the Holy Spirit of Promise acts to make a person’s calling and election sure. See “History, 1838–1856, Volume C-1 [2 November 1838–31 July 1842],” 1141, Joseph Smith Papers, accessed November 17, 2022, https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/history-1838-1856-volume-c-1-2-november-1838-31-july-1842/313. This Holy Spirit of Promise acts as a “comforter” giving as it does the recipient the promise of eternal life, “even the glory of the celestial kingdom” (D&C 88:3–5).
256. BDAG, 1098–1100. The word has a wide range of meanings including life itself as well as the immortal portion of a person. In some respects, it is that portion of a person that can be most attuned to the Divine. For a study, see NID, 4:725–34.
263. BDAG, 482–83. The imagery Paul uses looks to both court and the battlefield where both testing and trial take place. Standing means victory while falling means defeat. The verb therefore carries a reminder that the Christians are at war with this world and must not only endure through faith but push forward the cause of Christ. Seifrid, Second Letter, 72.
266. A mandate set upon the Apostles was to keep the Church in order through Church discipline. For a study, see G. W. H. Lampe, “Church Discipline and the Interpretation of the Epistles to the Corinthians,” in Christian History and Interpretation: Studies Presented to John Knox, ed. W. R. Farmer, C. F. D. Moule, and R. R. Niebuhr (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), 337–61.
270. As 2 Ne. 2:25 teaches, the purpose of life is that people might obtain joy. This is a major thrust of the gospel. See Matt. 25:21, 23; John 15:11; 16:24; 17:13; Rom. 14:17; 15:13; 1 Pet. 1:8; 4:13; 1 John 1:4; 2 Ne. 27:30; Alma 33:23; 3 Ne. 28:10; and D&C 11:13; 42:61; 51:19; 70:18.
271. Witherington, Conflict and Community, 364 with n. 13.
