1. Nauvoo Wasp, April 23, 30, 1842.

2. For historical overviews, see Hamilton Gardner, “The Nauvoo Legion, 1840–1845: A Unique Military Organization,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 54 (summer 1961): 181–97; and John Sweeney Jr., “A History of the Nauvoo Legion in Illinois” (master’s thesis, Brigham Young University, 1974).

3. John Lee Allaman, “Uniforms and Equipment of the Black Hawk War and the Mormon War,” Western Illinois Regional Studies 13 (spring 1990): 5–6. Other titles of status widely used at the time include esquire (to identify attorneys), professor, and reverend. For examples of the use of military titles, simply scan Joseph Smith Jr., History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ed. B. H. Roberts, 2d ed., rev., 7 vols. (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1971), vols. 3–7 (hereafter cited as History of the Church), and note the various titles given both Latter-day Saints and their neighbors.

4. Noel R. Barton and Stephen K. Kendall, “Profiles of Nauvoo: The Life and Paintings of Sutcliffe Maudsley,” typescript, copy in research files, Museum of Church History and Art, Salt Lake City, 3–4.

5. A small portable box that used a lens and angled mirror to reflect the desired image onto a piece of ground glass on the camera’s top. The artist traced the reflected image. It was a difficult process, used most commonly by landscape artists. This device was still in use when permanent photographic images were developed in the 1830s. Photography, which allowed the reflected image to be captured on a chemically sensitized surface, would not be available in Nauvoo until just after Joseph Smith’s death. Lucian R. Foster, who is mentioned later in this article, set up a daguerreotype portrait studio in August 1844, after moving to Nauvoo from New York. John Hedgecoe, The Book of Photography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), 18–19; Nauvoo Neighbor, August 14, 1844.

6. Barton and Kendall, “Profiles of Nauvoo,” 2–3; Hedgecoe, Book of Photography, 20.

7. “New Portrait of the Prophet Joseph,” Juvenile Instructor 45 (April 1910): 154–55; Noel Barton, telephone conversation with the author, Farmington, Utah, July 15, 1995.

8. William B. McCarl speculated that Maudsley may have added the body after first creating a profile head. See McCarl, “The Visual Image of Joseph Smith” (master’s thesis, Brigham Young University, 1962), 17–18; Elizabeth Harris, Division of Graphic Arts, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution, confirmed that most profile artists of the early nineteenth century worked this way. Harris, telephone conversation with author, July 19, 1995.

9. This image is in a private collection. Several institutions and individuals own head-and-torso drawings of Joseph Smith, Hyrum Smith, Hosea Stout, and others in formal dress.

10. Harris, telephone conversation; Arthur Mayne, British Profile Miniaturists (Boston: Boston Book and Art, 1970), 28–31; Ellen G. Miles, Saint-Memin and the Neoclassical Profile Portrait in America (Washington, D.C.: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, 1994), 39–42.

11. “Brief Sketch of the Life of the Late Elder Robert Campbell,” Millennial Star 52 (July 21, 1890): 459–60; Juanita Brooks, ed., On the Mormon Frontier: The Diary of Hosea Stout, 1844–1861, 2 vols. (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1964), 1:51–52, 93–94, entries of July 7, 9, 11, and November 21, 29, 1845. The Stout profile appears in Utah Historical Quarterly 30 (fall 1962): 332–44. Campbell is sometimes confused with Robert Lang Campbell (1825–1874), an immigrant from Scotland to Nauvoo in 1845, whose career in Utah as a clerk and public official parallels that of Robert Campbell, the English engraver.

12. John Cook Bennett, The History of the Saints: or, An Exposé of Joe Smith and Mormonism (Boston: Leland and Whiting; New York: Bradbury, Soden; and Cincinnati: E. S. Norris, 1842).

13. The only clue to the dating is that by mid-1841 tailor John Bills had made an officer’s coat (presumably this one) for Bennett in Nauvoo. See advertisement, Times and Seasons 2 (June 15, 1841): 454. It is possible that the portrait reflects the military uniform of Bennett’s pre–Nauvoo Legion days.

14. These two portraits descended through the families of Joseph Smith and Brigham Young until purchased by collectors and eventually acquired by the Museum of Church History and Art.

15. For a reproduction of Emma’s portrait, see Museum of Church History and Art, Images of Faith: Art of the Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1995), 7, plate 8. Ephraim Hatch has convincingly demonstrated the match between the profiles and death mask. See Hatch, “What Did Joseph Smith Look Like?” Ensign 11 (March 1981): 66.

16. This portrait was preserved by Brigham Young’s wife Mary Ann Angell Young and sold following her death in 1882. It came into the Church Museum collection in June 1984.

17. Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Papers of Joseph Smith: Volume 2, Journal, 1832–1842 (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1992), 391 (punctuation corrected); and compare History of the Church 5:44.

18. Advertisement, Nauvoo Neighbor, May 1, 1844.

19. Information on printing methods provided by Elizabeth Harris, telephone conversation with the author, July 17, 1995. Both Gustavus Hills and Robert Campbell listed themselves as engravers, and Campbell made small stone lithographs, but the map was probably too complicated for them to attempt in Nauvoo. The contract to produce the map was given to John Childs by Willard Richards. Richards and John M. Bernhisel visited Child’s shop on July 24, 1842, and Richards returned at least three times during the following three weeks. On one of those visits, he mentions his dissatisfaction with “Bro. Foster’s proof.” (Lucian Foster, who later moved to Nauvoo, had a daguerreotype shop in the neighborhood and may have worked for the printer.) Richards mentions in his diary that he could not pay for the lithograph. That may explain the two-year delay in getting it printed. Richards filed for the map’s copyright on behalf of Joseph Smith in Illinois District Court in Springfield on December 17, 1842. It is not known if he submitted any visual images with the filing, but he may have brought back to Nauvoo a proof for that purpose. Willard Richards, Diary, July 24, August 8, 16, 17, 19, and December 17, 1842, Archives Division, Historical Department, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City (hereafter cited as LDS Church Archives); History of the Church 5:206–7. At the Church Museum, an original copy of the map is displayed with a metal printing plate for the map. The map and printing plate can be seen in the Nauvoo section of the Covenant Restored exhibit. The plate was found in the home of Oscar B. Young, who moved to Provo in 1890; it was delivered to Brigham Young University in the late 1930s. The story of the plate’s preservation is told in W. H. Snell, appendix D, “Old Nauvoo Engraving Restored,” David E. Miller and Della S. Miller, Nauvoo: The City of Joseph (Santa Barbara and Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith, 1974), 251–53. Because the metal in this plate has been identified as zinc (zinc is mentioned by Lorie Winder, “In Search of the Real Joseph Smith,” Sunstone [November–December 1980]: 34) it is probably not the plate used by Childs, who most likely created the heavy plate in New York and then erased the image and refurbished the stone for use with another job. If the plate on display is indeed zinc, it dates to the late nineteenth century as the product of a photolithographic technique. Grinding patterns in the relief portions of the plate confirm a time after 1880. The Times and Seasons job press had a stereotype foundry, but the zinc plate was not produced by that process. It may have been an attempt in Utah to reissue the map, probably as a souvenir item.

20. Don L. Searle, “Painting of Prophet Is Probable Source of Likeness on Map,” Ensign 15 (April 1985): 78–79; Linda Jones Gibbs, “Images of Joseph Smith,” exhibit text, Museum of Church History and Art.

21. History of the Church 5:112–13, 163–64; Bennett, History of the Saints, publishers’ foreword and information on the title page.

22. Richard S. Van Wagoner, Mormon Polygamy: A History (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1986), 24. Unlike Bennett, Hills regained fellowship in the Church, remained in Nauvoo, and continued to function in business and civic circles.

23. William B. McCarl wondered if Bennett “absconded with another copy of the drawing for the Map.” McCarl, “The Visual Image of Joseph Smith,” 16. Hills or Campbell might have produced the lithographic stone for the map in Nauvoo, and then Hills might have struck an image for Bennett’s use. However, the factors already noted, the timing of Bennett’s publication, and credits on the map make this scenario unlikely.

24. Another possibility is that this edition was struck without Joseph Smith’s image for use after the Saints left Nauvoo. Engravers’ marks at the edge of the altered section and the rarity of the imprint suggest otherwise. A copy of the variant printing is preserved at the LDS Church Library, Salt Lake City, donated June 14, 1897, by Charlotte Higbee of Salt Lake City.

25. Willard Richards, Journals, 1836–1853, August 19, 1842, LDS Church Archives.

26. McCarl mentions a three-quarter-view drawing of Joseph Smith in uniform in the Illustrated London News, August 31, 1844, but a copy could not be located for the present study. McCarl believed it to have been influenced by the Nauvoo map profile. See McCarl, “The Visual Image of Joseph Smith,” 25–26.

27. Nauvoo Wasp, April 30, 1842; History of the Church 6:231–33.

28. To understand why Bennet did this, see his letter to President Joseph Smith, October 24, 1843, History of the Church 6:71–73.

29. Piercy is influenced by sources in Salt Lake City, including, perhaps, the unsigned oil painting or the small watercolor.

30. Taylor’s criticism is in the Nauvoo Neighbor, April 30, 1845, under the heading “The Portraits and Pictures”; the talented portraitists are named in the Nauvoo Neighbor, June 4, 1845, under the heading “Fine Arts”; Brannan’s paper was renamed the New-York Messenger. The new woodcut appeared in the New-York Messenger, July 12, 1845, and subsequent issues of the paper.

31. Allaman, “Uniforms and Equipment,” 11–12; Gardner, “The Nauvoo Legion,” 184; Jess McCall, curator, Fort Douglas Military Museum, interview with author, July 7, 1995. McCall looked at military portraits of Joseph Smith, John C. Bennett, and Brigham Young and compared them with authoritative reference works, generously sharing his findings.

32. From an accounting for parade equipment from John M. Bernhisel to Joseph Smith, March 8, 1843, equipment anticipated for James Arlington Bennet, Inspector General of the Nauvoo Legion, Newell K. Whitney Collection, Special Collections and Manuscripts, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.

33. Advertisement, Times and Seasons 2 (June 15, 1841): 454; McCall, interview, July 7, 10, 1995.

34. McCall, interview, July 13, 1995.

35. McCall, interview, July 13, 1995.

36. McCall, interview, July 13, 1995.

37. McCall, interview, July 13, 1995.

38. McCall, interview, July 13, 1995.

39. McCall, interview, July 13, 1995.

40. McCall, interview, July 7, 13, 1995.

41. History of the Church 5:49, 112–13.

42. The epaulets in the Presidents of the Church exhibit at the Museum of Church History and Art were donated in 1912 by Charles W. Rockwood. The Smith-Rockwell sword was donated the same year by George W. Lufkin, who received it from Rockwell. The museum acquired sashes and epaulets from the Joseph Fielding Smith family in 1982. Jess McCall provided information on swords as gifts in the interview with the author, July 7, 1995.

43. “Lieut.-General Brigham Young,” Contributor 9 (December 1887): 79–80, a commentary on a reproduction of the painting facing page 41.

44. Linda Jones Gibbs, Masterworks: From the Collection of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1984), 18–19.

45. Gibbs, Masterworks, 18; McCall, interview, July 7, 1995.

46. History of the Church 6:497, 7:390; Philo Dibble to Orson Pratt and Orson Spencer, July 11, 1848, Millennial Star 11 (January 1, 1849): 11–12. Dibble filed a copyright notice on March 11, 1845, in Illinois District Court for eight scenes of persecutions in Missouri and Nauvoo; copy in Artists File, Museum of Church History and Art.

47. Brooks, Diary of Hosea Stout 1:61–62, entries of September 8, 10, 1845. The watercolor, part of the Church collection for an undetermined number of years, has been linked with Campbell and Major only recently through the author’s own Nauvoo research combined with information about Dibble’s panorama project collected by Richard G. Oman and Jennifer L. Lund.

48. Millennial Star 11 (January 1, 1849): 12; Nauvoo Neighbor, April 16, 1845; Wilford Woodruff, Wilford Woodruff’s Journal, 1833–1898, Typescript, ed. Scott G. Kenney, 9 vols. (Midvale, Utah: Signature Books, 1985), 3:337–38. Dibble’s illustrated lectures in Utah are noted in Andrew Jenson, Journal History of the Church, November 18, 1878, 4–7, LDS Church Archives (hereafter cited as JH); JH, October 20, 1883, 11 (Territorial Enquirer, October 30, 1883); JH, May 27, 1895, 7–8 (Deseret Evening News, May 28, 1895); and Amy Brown Lyman, In Retrospect: Autobiography of Amy Brown Lyman (Salt Lake City: General Board of Relief Society, 1945), 3.

49. Map of Hancock County, State of Illinois, Drawn from Original Surveys by Messrs. Hill, Ripley and Campbell 1843, copy in research files, Nauvoo Restoration Inc., Salt Lake City; David Hyrum Smith, “Nauvoo—a Painting,” BYU Studies 15, no. 4 (summer 1975): 498 and cover illustration; information about the Mansion House was given by Alma Blair in a conversation with the author on June 23, 1995. Surviving gutter spouts are displayed in the Joseph Smith exhibit at the Museum of Church History and Art and in Nauvoo.

50. James L. Kimball Jr., Church Historical Department, helped identify the buildings from property records compiled by Nauvoo Restoration Inc.

51. Brooks, Diary of Hosea Stout 1:61–62, entries of September 8, 10, 1845.

52. Gardner, “The Nauvoo Legion,” 193–94.

53. McCall, interview, July 21, 1995.

54. Mosiah Hancock, Autobiography, 25, LDS Church Archives; William Byram Pace, “Diary of William Byram Pace and Biography of His Father, James Pace,” LDS Church Archives, 2.

55. Nauvoo Neighbor, April 30, 1845. Charles W. Carter’s 1886 photographic reproduction of the lithograph has been widely published. For recent uses, see Church History in the Fulness of Times: The History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1989), 205; and Max H. Parkin, “Missouri Conflict,” in Encyclopedia of Mormonism, ed. Daniel H. Ludlow, 5 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 2:930.

56. This image and two other early examples can be seen in Davis Bitton, The Martydom Remembered: A One-Hundred Fifty-Year Perspective on the Assination of Joseph Smith (Salt Lake City: Aspen Books, 1994), 48, 88.

57. Gibbs, Masterworks, 58; Gardner, “The Nauvoo Legion,” 197.

58. Hafen is quoting from the consolidated synopsis of the address found in History of the Church 6:499.

59. The photograph can be seen in B. H. Roberts, A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century One, 6 vols. (Provo, Utah: Corporation of the President, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1965), 2: facing page 178; a similar view can be seen in Miller and Miller, Nauvoo: The City of Joseph, 123.

60. The engraving can be seen in Charles Mackay, ed., The Mormons; or, Latter-day Saints (London: Office of the National Illustrated Library, 1851), 123; Benjamin Ferris, Utah and the Mormons: The History, Government, Doctrines, Customs, and Prospects of the Latter-day Saints from Personal Observation during a Six Months’ Residence at Great Salt Lake City (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1854), 101; Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, 35 (April 1853): 611; and J. H. Beadle, Life in Utah: or, The Mysteries and Crimes of Mormonism (Philadelphia: National Publishing, 1870), facing 76. Mackay may have borrowed the engraving from an earlier publication.

61. Times and Seasons 4 (June 15, 1843): 234, quoting the Salem (Mass.) Advertizer and Argus.

62. A copy of C. J. Christensen’s dialogue, recorded after he was no longer touring his father’s art, is on file at the Museum of Church History and Art.

63. Photograph by Johnson, Association of Veteran Artillerymen of Nauvoo Legion, 1908. LDS Church Archives.

64. A recent exception is the sketch by S. Monroe Hart, Joseph and the Nauvoo Legion, illustrating Roger K. Peterson’s poem on Joseph Smith’s death in H. Dean Garrett, ed., Regional Studies in Latter-day Saint Church History: Illinois (Provo: Department of Church History and Doctrine, Brigham Young University, 1995), 23–26. Both the sketch and the poem draw loosely from the Mackay-Hafen-Christensen-Weggeland visual tradition of Joseph Smith astride a black horse.

65. The Nauvoo Legion Benevolent Association banner and memorial ribbon described here are found in the collection of the Museum of Church History and Art.